Introductory Digital Image Processing

by Jensen, John R.

• ISBN13: 9780131453616
• ISBN10: 0131453610
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2004-04-30
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

For junior/graduate-level courses in Remote Sensing in Geography, Geology, Forestry, and Biology.This revision of Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective continues to focus on digital image processing of aircraft- and satellite-derived, remotely sensed data for Earth resource management applications. Extensively illustrated, it explains how to extract biophysical information from remote sensor data for almost all multidisciplinary land-based environmental projects. Part of the Prentice Hall Series Geographic Information Science.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Acknowledgments	xvi
Remote Sensing and Digital Image Processing	1	(34)
In Situ Data Collection	1	(2)
In Situ Data-Collection Error	2	(1)
Remote Sensing Data Collection	3	(3)
Observations about Remote Sensing	4	(1)
Remote Sensing Advantages and Limitations	5	(1)
The Remote Sensing Process	6	(22)
Statement of the Problem	7	(2)
Identification of In Situ and Remote Sensing Data Requirement	9	(3)
Remote Sensing Data Collection	12	(12)
Remote Sensing Data Analysis	24	(4)
Information Presentation	28	(1)
Earth Resource Analysis Perspective	28	(1)
Book Organization	28	(2)
References	30	(5)
Remote Sensing Data Collection	35	(72)
Analog (Hard-Copy) Image Digitization	35	(9)
Digital Image Terminology	35	(1)
Microdensitometer Digitization	36	(2)
Video Digitization	38	(1)
Linear and Area Array Charge-Coupled-Device Digitization	39	(2)
Digitized National Aerial Photography Program Data	41	(1)
Digitization Considerations	41	(3)
Digital Remote Sensor Data Collection	44	(3)
Multispectral Imaging Using Discrete Detectors and Scanning Mirrors	47	(27)
Earth Resource Technology Satellites and Landsat Sensor Systems	47	(15)
NOAA Multispectral Scanner Sensors	62	(6)
ORBIMAGE, Inc., and NASA Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor	68	(3)
Aircraft Multispectral Scanners	71	(3)
Multispectral Imaging Using Linear Arrays	74	(16)
SPOT Sensor Systems	74	(8)
Indian Remote Sensing Systems	82	(1)
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer	83	(2)
Multiangle Imaging Spectroradiometer	85	(1)
Very-High-Resolution Linear Array Remote Sensing Systems	86	(4)
Imaging Spectrometry Using Linear and Area Arrays	90	(5)
Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer	91	(1)
Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager 3	92	(1)
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer	92	(3)
Digital Frame Cameras	95	(3)
Digital Frame Camera Data Collection	96	(2)
Emerge, Inc., Digital Sensor System	98	(1)
Satellite Photographic Systems	98	(3)
Russian SPIN-2 TK-350 and KVR-1000 Cameras	98	(3)
U.S. Space Shuttle Photography	101	(1)
Digital Image Data Formats	101	(2)
Band Interleaved by Pixel Format	102	(1)
Band Interleaved by Line Format	102	(1)
Band Sequential Format	103	(1)
Summary	103	(1)
References	104	(3)
Digital Image Processing Hardware and Software Considerations	107	(20)
Digital Image Processing System Considerations	107	(1)
Central Processing Units, Personal Computers, Workstations, and Mainframes	108	(2)
Personal Computer	110	(1)
Computer Workstations	110	(1)
Mainframe Computers	110	(1)
Read-Only Memory, Random Access Memory, Serial and Parallel Processing, and Arithmetic Coprocessor	110	(3)
Read-Only Memory and Random Access Memory	113	(1)
Serial and Parallel Image Processing	113	(1)
Arithmetic Coprocessor	113	(1)
Mode of Operation and Interface	113	(2)
Mode of Operation	113	(1)
Graphical User Interface	114	(1)
Computer Operating System and Compiler(s)	115	(2)
Operating System	117	(1)
Compiler	117	(1)
Storage and Archiving Considerations	117	(1)
Rapid Access Mass Storage	117	(1)
Archiving Considerations: Longevity	118	(1)
Computer Display Spatial and Color Resolution	118	(2)
Computer Screen Display Resolution	118	(1)
Computer Screen Color Resolution	118	(2)
Important Image Processing Functions	120	(1)
Commercial and Public Digital Image Processing Systems	121	(1)
Digital Image Processing and the National Spatial Data Infrastructure	121	(2)
Sources of Digital Image Processing Systems	123	(1)
References	124	(3)
Image Quality Assessment and Statistical Evaluation	127	(24)
Image Processing Mathematical Notation	127	(1)
Sampling Theory	128	(1)
The Histogram and Its Significance to Digital Image Processing	128	(4)
Image Metadata	132	(1)
Viewing Individual Pixel Brightness Values at Specific Locations or within a Geographic Area	132	(3)
Cursor Evaluation of Individual Pixel Brightness Values	132	(1)
Two- and Three-dimensional Evaluation of Pixel Brightness Values within a Geographic Area	133	(2)
Univariate Descriptive Image Statistics	135	(2)
Measure of Central Tendency in Remote Sensor Data	135	(1)
Measures of Dispersion	135	(2)
Measures of Distribution (Histogram) Asymmetry and Peak Sharpness	137	(1)
Multivariate Image Statistics	137	(4)
Covariance in Multiple Bands of Remote Sensor Data	138	(1)
Correlation between Multiple Bands of Remotely Sensed Data	139	(2)
Feature Space Plots	141	(1)
Geostatistical Analysis	141	(7)
Relationships among Geostatistical Analysis, Autocorrelation, and Kriging	141	(2)
Calculating Average Semivariance	143	(1)
Empirical Semivariagram	144	(4)
References	148	(3)
Initial Display Alternatives and Scientific Visualization	151	(24)
Image Display Considerations	151	(3)
Black-and-White Hard-copy Image Display	154	(1)
Line Printer/Plotter Brightness Maps	154	(1)
Laser or Ink-jet Printer Brightness Maps	154	(1)
Temporary Video Image Display	154	(10)
Black-and-White and Color Brightness Maps	154	(1)
Bitmapped Graphics	154	(3)
RGB Color Coordinate System	157	(1)
Color Look-up Tables: 8-bit	158	(1)
Color Look-up Tables: 24-bit	159	(2)
Color Composites	161	(3)
Merging Remotely Sensed Data	164	(5)
Band Substitution	164	(1)
Color Space Transformation and Substitution	164	(4)
Principal Component Substitution	168	(1)
Pixel-by-Pixel Addition of High-Frequency Information	169	(1)
Smoothing Filter-based Intensity Modulation Image Fusion	169	(1)
Distance, Area, and Shape Measurement	169	(3)
Distance Measurement	169	(2)
Area Measurement	171	(1)
Shape Measurement	172	(1)
References	172	(3)
Electromagnetic Radiation Principles and Radiometric Correction	175	(52)
Electromagnetic Energy Interactions	176	(1)
Conduction, Convection, and Radiation	176	(1)
Electromagnetic Radiation Models	176	(9)
Wave Model of Electromagnetic Energy	176	(5)
The Particle Model: Radiation from Atomic Structures	181	(4)
Atmospheric Energy--Matter Interactions	185	(6)
Refraction	185	(1)
Scattering	186	(2)
Absorption	188	(2)
Reflectance	190	(1)
Terrain Energy--Matter Interactions	191	(3)
Hemispherical Reflectance, Absorptance, and Transmittance	191	(1)
Radiant Flux Density	192	(2)
Energy--Matter Interactions in the Atmosphere Once Again	194	(1)
Energy--Matter Interactions at the Sensor System	194	(1)
Correcting Remote Sensing System Detector Error	194	(4)
Random Bad Pixels (Shot Noise)	195	(1)
Line or Column Drop-outs	195	(1)
Partial Line or Column Drop-outs	195	(2)
Line-start Problems	197	(1)
N-line Striping	198	(1)
Remote Sensing Atmospheric Correction	198	(22)
Unnecessary Atmospheric Correction	198	(4)
Necessary Atmospheric Correction	202	(1)
Types of Atmospheric Correction	202	(1)
Absolution Radiometric Correction of Atmospheric Attenuation	203	(10)
Relative Radiometric Correction of Atmospheric Attenuation	213	(7)
Correcting for Slope and Aspect Effects	220	(2)
The Cosine Correction	221	(1)
The Minnaert Correction	221	(1)
A Statistical--Empirical Correction	222	(1)
The C Correction	222	(1)
References	222	(5)
Geometric Correction	227	(28)
Internal and External Geometric Error	227	(7)
Internal Geometric Error	227	(5)
External Geometric Error	232	(2)
Types of Geometric Correction	234	(16)
Image-to-Map Rectification	235	(1)
Image-to-Image Registration	236	(1)
Hybrid Approach to Image Rectification/Registration	236	(1)
Image-to-Map Geometric Rectification Logic	236	(8)
Example of Image-to-Map Rectification	244	(6)
Mosaicking	250	(2)
Mosaicking Rectified Images	250	(2)
References	252	(3)
Image Enhancement	255	(82)
Image Reduction and Magnification	255	(2)
Image Reduction	255	(1)
Image Magnification	256	(1)
Transects (Spatial Profiles)	257	(5)
Spectral Profiles	262	(4)
Contrast Enhancement	266	(8)
Linear Contrast Enhancement	266	(6)
Nonlinear Contrast Enhancement	272	(2)
Band Ratioing	274	(2)
Spatial Filtering	276	(20)
Spatial Convolution Filtering	276	(11)
The Fourier Transform	287	(9)
Principal Components Analysis	296	(5)
Vegetation Transformations (Indices)	301	(21)
Dominant Factors Controlling Leaf Reflectance	301	(9)
Vegetation Indices	310	(12)
Texture Transformations	322	(7)
First-order Statistics in the Spatial Domain	322	(2)
Second-order Statistics in the Spatial Domain	324	(2)
Texture Units as Elements of a Texture Spectrum	326	(1)
Fractal Dimension as a Measure of Spatial Complexity or Texture	327	(2)
Texture Statistics Based on the Semi-variogram	329	(1)
References	329	(8)
Thematic Information Extraction: Pattern Recognition	337	(70)
Supervised Classification	338	(41)
Land-use and Land-cover Classification Schemes	340	(10)
Training Site Selection and Statistics Extraction	350	(6)
Selecting the Optimum Bands for Image Classification: Feature Selection	356	(14)
Select the Appropriate Classification Algorithm	370	(9)
Unsupervised Classification	379	(10)
Unsupervised Classification Using the Chain Method	379	(4)
Unsupervised Classification Using the ISODATA Method	383	(2)
Unsupervised Cluster Busting	385	(4)
Fuzzy Classification	389	(4)
Classification Based on Object-oriented Image Segmentation	393	(6)
Object-oriented Image Segmentation and Classification	393	(6)
Object-oriented Considerations	399	(1)
Incorporating Ancillary Data in the Classification Process	399	(2)
Problems Associated with Ancillary Data	399	(1)
Approaches to Incorporating Ancillary Data to Improve Remote Sensing Classification Maps	399	(2)
References	401	(6)
Information Extraction Using Artificial Intelligence	407	(24)
Expert Systems	408	(13)
Expert System User Interface	408	(1)
Creating the Knowledge Base	408	(5)
Inference Engine	413	(1)
On-line Databases	413	(1)
Expert Systems Applied to Remote Sensor Data	413	(6)
Advantages of Expert Systems	419	(2)
Neural Networks	421	(6)
Components and Characteristics of a Typical Artificial Neural Network Used to Extract Information from Remotely Sensed Data	421	(4)
Advantages of Artificial Neural Networks	425	(1)
Limitations of Artificial Neural Networks	426	(1)
Neural Networks versus Expert Systems Developed Using Machine Learning	426	(1)
References	427	(4)
Thematic Information Extraction: Hyperspectral Image Analysis	431	(36)
Multispectral versus Hyperspectral Data Collection	431	(2)
Steps to Extract Information from Hyperspectral Data	433	(2)
NASA's Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer	435	(1)
Subset Study Area from Flight Line(s)	435	(1)
Initial Image Quality Assessment	435	(3)
Visual Individual Band Examination	435	(2)
Visual Examination of Color Composite Images Consisting of Three Bands	437	(1)
Animation	437	(1)
Statistical Individual Band Examination	437	(1)
Radiometric Calibration	438	(5)
In Situ Data Collection	438	(1)
Radiosondes	438	(1)
Radiative Transfer-based Atmospheric Correction	438	(3)
Band-by-Band Spectral Polishing	441	(2)
Empirical Line Calibration Atmospheric Correction	443	(1)
Geometric Correction of Hyperspectral Remote Sensor Data	443	(1)
Reducing the Dimensionality of Hyperspectral Data	443	(2)
Minimum Noise Fraction Transformation	444	(1)
Endmember Determination: Locating the Spectrally Purest Pixels	445	(5)
Pixel Purity Index Mapping	445	(2)
n-dimensional Endmember Visualization	447	(3)
Mapping and Matching Using Hyperspectral Data	450	(7)
Spectral Angle Mapper	450	(3)
Subpixel Classification (Linear Spectral Unmixing)	453	(3)
Spectroscopic Library Matching Techniques	456	(1)
Indices Developed for Hyperspectral Data	457	(4)
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index --- NDVI	457	(2)
Narrow-band Derivative-based Vegetation Indices	459	(1)
Yellowness Index --- YI	459	(1)
Physiological Reflectance Index --- PRI	460	(1)
Normalized Difference Water Index --- NDWI	460	(1)
Red-edge Position Determination --- REP	460	(1)
Crop Chlorophyll Content Prediction	461	(1)
Derivative Spectroscopy	461	(1)
References	462	(5)
Digital Change Detection	467	(28)
Steps Required to Perform Change Detection	467	(7)
Change Detection Geographic Region of Interest	467	(1)
Change Detection Time Period	467	(1)
Select an Appropriate Land-use/Land-cover Classification System	468	(1)
Hard and Fuzzy Change Detection Logic	468	(1)
Per-pixel or Object-oriented Change Detection	468	(1)
Remote Sensing System Considerations	468	(3)
Environmental Considerations of Importance When Performing Change Detection	471	(3)
Selection of a Change Detection Algorithm	474	(17)
Change Detection Using Write Function Memory Insertion	475	(1)
Multidate Composite Image Change Detection	475	(3)
Image Algebra Change Detection	478	(4)
Post-classification Comparison Change Detection	482	(1)
Change Detection Using a Binary Change Mask Applied to Date 2	483	(1)
Change Detection Using an Ancillary Data Source as Date 1	483	(1)
Spectral Change Vector Analysis	484	(2)
Chi-square Transformation Change Detection	486	(1)
Cross-correlation Change Detection	486	(1)
Knowledge-based Vision Systems for Detecting Change	487	(1)
Visual On-screen Change Detection and Digitization	487	(4)
Atmospheric Correction for Change Detection	491	(1)
When Atmospheric Correction Is Necessary	491	(1)
When Atmospheric Correction Is Unnecessary	492	(1)
Summary	492	(1)
References	492	(3)
Thematic Map Accuracy Assessment	495	(22)
Land-use and Land-cover Map Accuracy Assessment	495	(1)
Sources of Error in Remote Sensing--derived Thematic Products	496	(3)
The Error Matrix	499	(1)
Training versus Ground Reference Test Information	500	(1)
Sample Size	501	(1)
Sample Size Based on Binomial Probability Theory	501	(1)
Sample Size Based on Multinomial Distribution	501	(1)
Sampling Design (Scheme)	502	(3)
Simple Random Sampling	504	(1)
Systematic Sampling	504	(1)
Stratified Random Sampling	504	(1)
Stratified Systematic Unaligned Sampling	504	(1)
Cluster Sampling	505	(1)
Obtaining Ground Reference Information at Locations Using a Response Design	505	(1)
Evaluation of Error Matrices	505	(7)
Descriptive Evaluation of Error Matrices	505	(1)
Discrete Multivariate Analytical Techniques Applied to the Error Matrix	506	(2)
Fuzzification of the Error Matrix	508	(4)
Geostatistical Analysis to Assess the Accuracy of Remote Sensing--derived Information	512	(1)
Image Metadata and Lineage Information for Remote Sensing--derived Products	512	(1)
Individual Image Metadata	513	(1)
Lineage of Remote Sensing--derived Products	513	(1)
References	513	(4)
Index	517