Isotope Tracers in Catchment Hydrology

by Kendall, Carol; McDonnell, Jeffrey J.

• ISBN13: 9780444815460
• ISBN10: 0444815465
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1998-11-01
• Publisher: Elsevier Science Ltd

Table of Contents

PART I. BASIC PRINCIPLES
Fundamentals of Small Catchment Hydrology	1	(50)
J.M. Buttle
Introduction to Small Catchments	1	(1)
The Catchment Water Balance	1	(32)
General components of the water balance	1	(1)
Precipitation, interception, net precipitation	2	(8)
Snowmelt	10	(1)
Infiltration and soil water storage	11	(8)
Evaporation and evapotranspiration	19	(5)
Storage in lakes, wetlands and stream channels	24	(2)
Runoff outputs via streamflow	26	(1)
Mechanisms of stormflow generation	27	(5)
Groundwater flow	32	(1)
Questions of Spatial and Temporal Scale in Catchment Hydrology	33	(2)
Use of Isotopes in Catchment Research	35	(7)
Evaporation, evapotranspiration, interception	36	(1)
Pore-water mixing (the mobile-immobile water issue)	37	(1)
Soil and groundwater recharge rates	38	(1)
Soil water, groundwater and surface water residence times	39	(1)
Storm runoff components	40	(1)
Water sources versus water flowpaths	41	(1)
Sources of solutes	42	(1)
New Research Directions	42	(1)
Summary	43	(8)
Fundamentals of Isotope Geochemistry	51	(36)
C. Kendall
E.A. Caldwell
Introduction	51	(2)
Fundamentals of Isotope Geochemistry	53	(4)
Definitions	53	(2)
Terminology	55	(1)
Standards	56	(1)
Stable Isotope Fractionation	57	(15)
Properties of isotopic molecules	57	(1)
Fractionation accompanying chemical reactions and phase changes	57	(4)
The Rayleigh equations	61	(1)
Isotopic fractination in open and closed systems	61	(9)
Biological fractionations	70	(2)
Sample Collection, Analysis, and Quality Assurance	72	(6)
Sampling guidelines	72	(3)
Analytical methods and instrumentation	75	(2)
Quality assurance of contract laboratories	77	(1)
Applications of Isotope Tracers in Catchment Hydrology	78	(6)
Water isotope hydrology	79	(1)
Solute isotope biogeochemistry	79	(1)
Mixing	80	(2)
Isotopically labeled materials	82	(1)
Stable isotopes in geochemical modeling	82	(1)
Use of a multi-isotope approach for the determination of flowpaths	83	(1)
Summary	84	(3)
PART II. PROCESSES AFFECTING ISOTOPIC COMPOSITIONS
Isotopic Variations in Precipitation	87	(32)
N.L. Ingraham
Introduction	87	(4)
Global hydrologic cycle	88	(3)
Natural Fractionation of Isotopes in Precipitation	91	(3)
Co-variance of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes in precipitation	91	(3)
Systematics of Isotope Variations in Precipitation	94	(14)
System fractionation	94	(2)
Unique types of precipitation	96	(4)
Observed effects	100	(3)
Temporal variation in precipitation	103	(1)
Geographic variation in precipitation in convective systems	104	(1)
Continental effect in precipitation	104	(2)
Dependence of rain on ambient temperature	106	(1)
Exchange with atmospheric vapor	106	(2)
Evaporation on the canopy	108	(1)
Mesoscale Circulation and Storm Trajectories	108	(2)
Tritium	110	(3)
Origin	110	(1)
Recent elevated levels and decline	111	(1)
Observed terrestrial and marine distributions	112	(1)
Uses of tritium in catchment basin research	112	(1)
Implications for Catchment Basin Research	113	(2)
Scale issues	113	(1)
Sample collection	113	(2)
Summary	115	(4)
Isotopic Fractionation in Snow Cover	119	(18)
L.W. Cooper
Introduction	119	(1)
Isotopic Changes to a Snowpack	120	(11)
Changes during snow accumulation	120	(3)
Changes during snowmelt	123	(5)
Isotopic water balance and evaporation	128	(1)
Catchment scale and runoff considerations	129	(2)
Future Directions for Research	131	(6)
Isotopic Exchange in Soil Water	137	(28)
C.J. Barnes
J.V. Turner
Introduction	137	(2)
General discussion of isotopes	137	(1)
Analytical considerations	138	(1)
Soil-water extraction techniques	139	(1)
Processes Leading to Soil Water Concentration Variations: Meteorological Inputs	139	(2)
Processes Leading to Soil Water Concentration Variations: Evaporation	141	(20)
Introduction	141	(1)
Saturated soils	142	(5)
Unsaturated soils	147	(3)
Unsteady evaporation	150	(5)
Temperature effects	155	(3)
Oxygen-18/deuterium relationship	158	(3)
Further modifications due to salinity and transpiration	161	(1)
New Research Directions	161	(1)
Summary	162	(3)
Plants, Isotopes and Water Use: A Catchment-Scale Perspective	165	(38)
T.E. Dawson
J.R. Ehleringer
Introduction	165	(2)
Plants and catchment-level processes	165	(1)
Working premise concerning plants, isotopes and water use	166	(1)
Water Uptake and Water Transport in Plants	167	(6)
Background	167	(2)
Measurements of water uptake and transport by plants	169	(4)
Stomatal Regulation of Water Movement in the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum	173	(4)
Water movement and the regulatory role of plants: the leaf-level	173	(2)
Water movement and the regulatory role of plants: the stand-level	175	(2)
Water Sources and Water Use by Plants: Case Studies Using Stable Isotopes	177	(11)
Riparian forest communities	178	(1)
Arid and semi-arid plant communities	179	(1)
Temperate forest communities	180	(6)
Coastal plant communities	186	(2)
Current Issues Involving Plants and Catchment-Scale Hydrologic Processes	188	(4)
Invasive plants and site water balance	188	(1)
Stream diversions and riparian manipulations	189	(1)
Deforestation, reforestation and desertification	190	(2)
Long-term Record of Water Use by Plants	192	(2)
Merging the Study of Stable Isotopes in Water with Studies of Water Uptake and Water Use in Plants and the Hydrology of Catchments	194	(9)
Isotopes in Groundwater Hydrology	203	(44)
R. Gonfiantini
K. Frohlich
L. Araguas-Araguas
K. Rozanski
Introduction	203	(1)
Isotopic Variations in Waters Recharging the Aquifers	204	(3)
The isotopic composition of precipitation	204	(2)
The isotopic composition of surface waters	206	(1)
Isotopic Effects in the Unsaturated Zone	207	(4)
Mechanisms of infiltration	207	(1)
Water movement in the unsaturated zone	207	(2)
Dissolution processes	209	(2)
Shallow Aquifers	211	(14)
Recharge by precipitation	211	(3)
Recharge from surface waters	214	(3)
Hydrodynamical models of shallow groundwater systems based on isotopic data	217	(8)
Deep Groundwater	225	(9)
Groundwater movement in confined aquifers	225	(1)
Groundwater age	225	(8)
Interconnections between aquifers	233	(1)
Geothermal groundwaters	234	(1)
Groundwater Studies in Catchments	234	(13)
Present situation and case study examples	234	(4)
Research trends and needs	238	(9)
Lithogenic and Cosmogenic Tracers in Catchment Hydrology	247	(44)
G.J. Nimz
Introduction	247	(1)
Processes that Affect Lithogenic and Cosmogenic Isotopic Compositions in Hydrologic Systems	248	(14)
Lithogenic and cosmogenic solutes used in hydrologic analysis	248	(1)
Origin of lithogenic nuclides in natural waters: mineral reactions	248	(1)
Origin of lithogenic nuclides in natural waters: trace element exchange	249	(2)
Origin of isotopic variations: radiogenic nuclides	251	(2)
Origin of isotopic variations: the mineral weathering sequence	253	(2)
Origin of isotopic variations: uranium isotopes and alpha recoil	255	(2)
Origin of isotopic variations: cosmogenic nuclides	257	(1)
Origin of isotopic variations: fission products	258	(1)
Hydrologic application of cosmogenic nuclides	259	(3)
The Application of Lithogenic and Cosmogenic Nuclides to Catchment Hydrology	262	(15)
Input: precipitation, dry deposition, and throughfall	263	(3)
The shallow system: hydrograph separation, weathering, and arid-region infiltration	266	(6)
Evaporation/transpiration	272	(1)
The deep system: groundwater flow	272	(2)
System (basin) closure: mixing of water masses	274	(2)
Streamflow: mass balance within the catchment	276	(1)
Lithogenic and cosmogenic nuclides: summary	276	(1)
New Directions in Lithogenic and Cosmogenic Nuclides	277	(4)
The other geologic giant: neodymium	277	(1)
Lithogenic elements with fractionating isotopes	278	(2)
New directions in catchment hydrology for cosmogenic nuclides	280	(1)
Lithogenic and Cosmogenic Tracers in Catchment Hydrology: Concluding Remarks	281	(10)
Dissolved Gases in Subsurface Hydrology	291	(28)
D.K. Solomon
P.G. Cook
W.E. Sanford
Introduction	291	(1)
Occurrence and Transport of Dissolved Gases	291	(3)
Shallow Groundwater Dating	294	(14)
3H/3He	297	(2)
Chlorofluorocarbons	299	(3)
85Kr	302	(1)
Radiogenic 4He	303	(2)
Field examples of groundwater dating	305	(3)
Groundwater Surface-Water Interactions	308	(1)
4He	308	(1)
222Rn	309	(1)
Injected Dissolved Gas Tracers	309	(4)
Field example: noble gas tracer experiment	311	(2)
Future Directions	313	(6)
PART III. CASE STUDIES IN ISOTOPE HYDROLOGY
Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes in Rainfall-Runoff Studies	319	(28)
D.P. Genereux
R.P. Hooper
Introduction	319	(1)
Hydrograph Separation	320	(19)
Terminology	320	(1)
Requirements and assumptions in hydrograph separation	321	(1)
Findings and examples	321	(9)
Scale dependence of ƒpe values	330	(2)
Intra-component variability in tracer concentrations	332	(6)
Recommendations for field studies	338	(1)
New Directions	339	(4)
Subsurface mixing and residence time	339	(2)
Use of isotopes in model calibration	341	(2)
Conclusions	343	(4)
High Rainfall, Response-Dominated Catchments: A Comparative Study of Experiments in Tropical Northeast Queensland with Temperate New Zealand	347	(44)
M. Bonell
C.J. Barnes
C.R. Grant
A. Howard
J. Burns
Introduction	347	(1)
Previous Studies in High Rainfall, Response-Dominated Catchments	348	(1)
The Maimai catchments	348	(1)
Linkages between the Maimai and Babinda studies	349	(1)
Physical Background	349	(4)
Experimental Methods	353	(2)
Precipitation	353	(1)
Streamflow	353	(1)
Hillslope instrumentation	354	(1)
Results: Event of February 16, 1991	355	(13)
Antecedent catchment storage and rainfall-runoff of sample storm	355	(5)
Matric and hydraulic potential changes on sample slope transects	360	(6)
Hydrograph analysis	366	(2)
Stream Hydrograph Analysis and Isotopic Response	368	(11)
Event analysis-general considerations	368	(2)
Soil and groundwater isotopic changes	370	(9)
How High Rainfall Catchments Work	379	(6)
The Babinda model	379	(3)
The secondary store issue	382	(1)
New water dominance at Babinda vs old water dominance at Maimai	383	(2)
Future Research Directions	385	(6)
Snowmelt-Dominated Systems	391	(44)
A. Rodhe
Introduction	391	(8)
Basic hydrological processes	392	(5)
Global geographical distribution	397	(1)
Isotopic characteristics of snowmelt	397	(2)
Hydrograph Separation Studies	399	(19)
Historical studies	399	(2)
Recent studies with more complete characterization	401	(17)
Vertical Unsaturated Flow	418	(11)
Estimates of groundwater recharge and particle velocity	419	(1)
Piston flow versus macropore flow	420	(2)
Transit times and flow pattern from lysimeter studies	422	(4)
Flow pattern in two and three dimensions	426	(3)
Implications for catchment flow studies	429	(1)
Conclusions and Future Research Directions	429	(6)
Arid Catchments	435	(32)
N.L. Ingraham
E.A. Caldwell
B.Th. Verhagen
Introduction	435	(2)
The Use of Isotopes in Arid Catchment Studies	437	(16)
Precipitation	437	(3)
Lakes	440	(1)
Rivers	441	(2)
Rivers displaying isotopic enrichment	443	(3)
Rivers without isotopic enrichment	446	(1)
Soil water	446	(1)
Infiltration and recharge in arid regions	447	(4)
Groundwater	451	(1)
The `d' value in arid groundwater	452	(1)
Sampling	453	(2)
Precipitation	454	(1)
Surface water	454	(1)
Soil water	455	(1)
Non-Traditional Techniques	455	(5)
Strontium	456	(1)
3He/Tritium	457	(1)
Chlorine-36	458	(1)
Noble Gases	459	(1)
Chlorofluorocarbons	460	(1)
Future Directions	460	(7)
Groundwater and Surface-Water Interactions in Riparian and Lake-Dominated Systems	467	(22)
J.F. Walker
D.P. Krabbenhoft
Introduction	467	(2)
Importance of lake-dominated systems	467	(1)
Dominant hydrological processes	467	(2)
Previous Studies in Lake Systems	469	(1)
Estimating Groundwater Exchange with Lakes	470	(8)
Stable-isotope mass-balance method	471	(3)
Index-lake method	474	(4)
Wisconsin WEBB Case Study	478	(8)
Study area	478	(2)
Study design	480	(2)
Isotopic flow-system progression	482	(2)
Isotopic complexity	484	(2)
Concluding Remarks	486	(3)
PART IV. CASE STUDIES IN ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY
Use of Stable Isotopes in Evaluating Sulfur Biogeochemistry of Forest Ecosystems	489	(30)
M.J. Mitchell
H.R. Krouse
B. Mayer
A.C. Stam
Y. Zhang
Introduction: Forest Ecosystem Sulfur Dynamics	489	(2)
Controls on Sulfur Isotope Composition	491	(9)
Isotope fractionation	492	(3)
Atmospheric sources of sulfur	495	(1)
Geological sources of sulfur	495	(2)
Sulfur isotopes in the hydrosphere	497	(2)
Sulfur isotopes in soil and terrestrial vegetation	499	(1)
Natural Abundance Studies	500	(8)
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire	500	(2)
Bear Brook Watershed, Maine	502	(3)
Experimental Lakes Area, Ontario, Canada	505	(1)
Rocky Mountains, Colorado and Wyoming	505	(2)
Black Forest, Germany	507	(1)
Applied Tracer Studies	508	(6)
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, New Hampshire	508	(2)
Bear Brook Watershed, Maine	510	(1)
West Whitecourt, Alberta, Canada	511	(1)
Bavaria, Germany	512	(1)
Hoglwald, Germany	512	(1)
Black Forest, Germany	513	(1)
Skjervatjern Catchment, Norway	514	(1)
Lake Gardsjon Catchment, Sweden	514	(1)
New Research Directions	514	(1)
Summary	515	(4)
Tracing Nitrogen Sources and Cycles in Catchments	519	(58)
C. Kendall
Introduction	519	(4)
Fundamentals of nitrogen isotopes	520	(1)
Methods	520	(3)
The Nitrogen Cycle	523	(8)
Isotopic fractionations	523	(3)
Processes affecting N isotopic compositions	526	(5)
δ15N Values of Nitrogen Sources and Reservoirs	531	(7)
Atmospheric sources	532	(2)
Fertilizers	534	(1)
Animal waste	534	(1)
Plants	534	(1)
Soils	535	(2)
Groundwaters	537	(1)
δ18O Values of Nitrate Sources and Reservoirs	538	(7)
Atmospheric nitrate	539	(3)
Synthetic fertilizers and reagents	542	(1)
Microbial nitrate	542	(3)
Other processes affecting nitrate δ18O values	545	(1)
Tracing Sources and Cycling of Nitrate	545	(7)
Mixing	547	(1)
Denitrification	548	(4)
Application Studies	552	(11)
Agricultural and urban sources of nitrate	552	(4)
Sources of N in acid-rain affected forested catchments	556	(4)
Nitrogen-limited systems	560	(1)
Labeled-tracer studies	560	(2)
Food web studies	562	(1)
New Frontiers	563	(6)
Applications of the dual isotope method	564	(1)
Tracing sources and sinks for DOM	564	(1)
Applications of compound-specific isotope ratio mass spectrometry	565	(1)
Use of isotopic techniques to assess impacts of changes in land-management practices and landuse on water quality	566	(2)
Use of a multi-isotope or multi-tracer approach	568	(1)
Development of linked hydrologic/geochemical models	568	(1)
Summary	569	(8)
Carbon Cycling in Terrestrial Environments	577	(34)
Y. Wang
T.G. Huntington
L.J. Osher
L.I. Wassenaar
S.E. Trumbore
R.G. Amundson
J.W. Harden
D.M. McKnight
S.L. Schiff
G.R. Aiken
W.B. Lyons
R.O. Aravena
J.S. Baron
Introduction	577	(1)
Carbon Isotopes and Terminology	578	(2)
Carbon Dynamics in Soils	580	(15)
14C age of soil organic matter	581	(4)
Use of 14C to study C turnover in soils	585	(5)
The use of 13C to study C turnover in soils	590	(3)
Use of carbon isotopes in understanding carbon dynamics in peatlands	593	(2)
Isotope Studies of Dissolved Organic Matter in Groundwater	595	(5)
Stable carbon isotopes	598	(1)
Nitrogen, sulfur and hydrogen isotopes	599	(1)
Radiocarbon in DOC	599	(1)
Isotope Study of DOC in Lacustrine Environments	600	(2)
Isotope Studies and the Carbon Budget	602	(9)
Tracing of Weathering Reactions and Water Flowpaths: A Multi-Isotope Approach	611	(36)
T.D. Bullen
C. Kendall
Introduction	611	(8)
Rationale for using water and solute isotopes as tracers in catchments	611	(2)
Theoretical bases of the strontium, lead and carbon isotope systems	613	(5)
Geological/environmental factors leading to successful tracing with solute isotopes	618	(1)
Influences on Isotopic Composition of Sr, Pb and C in Catchment Waters	619	(8)
Lithologic controls on the isotopic composition of strontium and lead	619	(5)
Atmospheric/anthropogenic inputs of Sr, Pb, and C	624	(1)
Effects of organic and inorganic cycling on isotopic composition of carbon	625	(2)
Multi-Isotope Studies at Selected Watersheds	627	(13)
The combined use of O, H and Sr isotopes to understand differences in chemical evolution along different flowpaths in a sandy aquifer in northern Wisconsin	627	(3)
Sr, Pb and C isotopes as surrogate tracers of water movement at a catchment nested in calc-silicate rocks, Sleepers River, Vermont	630	(5)
C and Sr isotopes as tracers of sources of carbonate alkalinity at Catoctin Mountain, Maryland	635	(3)
Synthesis: an isotopic view of a catchment	638	(2)
Additional Solute Isotope Tracers: Li, B, Fe	640	(3)
Summary	643	(4)
Erosion, Weathering, and Sedimentation	647	(32)
P.R. Bierman
A. Albrecht
M.H. Bothner
E.T. Brown
T.D. Bullen
L.B. Gray
L. Turpin
Introduction	647	(1)
In Situ Produced Cosmogenic Nuclides	648	(7)
Cosmogenic nuclides in exposed outcrops	648	(2)
Cosmogenic nuclides in sediments	650	(2)
Case studies	652	(3)
Atmospheric Nuclides: 210Pb	655	(4)
Methods	656	(2)
Interpretation	658	(1)
Applications	659	(1)
Combined Approaches To Catchment Landscape Analysis: 137Cs and 210Pb	659	(7)
Lake sediments	660	(1)
Soils	661	(1)
Water Samples	662	(1)
Case studies	662	(4)
Tracing of Sediment Sources and Identification of Erosion Processes Using Natural and Anthropogenic Radionuclides	666	(4)
Nuclides of importance	667	(1)
Case studies	668	(2)
Sr and Weathering	670	(9)
Weathering and 87Sr/86Sr	670	(2)
Typical 87Sr/86Sr ratios	672	(1)
Sr isotopes as tracers of solute sources	672	(7)
Applications of Uranium-and Thorium-Series Radionuclides in Catchment Hydrology Studies	679	(44)
T.F. Kraemer
D.P. Genereux
Introduction	679	(1)
Review of Fundamental Concepts	680	(8)
Decay chains and radioactive equilibrium	680	(1)
Physical and chemical processes that redistribute U and Th series radionuclides	681	(7)
Radon Techniques in Catchment Hydrology	688	(17)
General considerations, mixing models	688	(1)
Mixing model without correction for volatilization	689	(2)
Mixing model with degassing correction through stagnant film model	691	(4)
Mixing model with degassing correction through an injected tracer	695	(4)
Mixing model, with partitioning of water inflow into different sources	699	(6)
Radium Isotopic Techniques in Catchment Hydrology	705	(14)
General considerations	705	(1)
Radium as a tracer for groundwater input to an estuary system	705	(4)
Use of 228Ra and 226Ra in quantifying groundwater input to a stream: conservative mixing	709	(4)
Use of 228Ra and 226Ra in quantifying groundwater input to a stream: non-conservative mixing	713	(1)
Use of 228Ra and 226Ra in quantifying three end-member conservative mixing	714	(2)
Using 224Ra and 228Ra to determine residence time of water in short-residence time reservoirs	716	(2)
Using radium isotopes to identify the source of water issuing from springs	718	(1)
New Research Directions	719	(4)
PART V. SYNTHESIS
Modeling of Isotopes and Hydrogeochemical Responses in Catchment Hydrology	723	(38)
J.V. Turner
C.J. Barnes
Introduction	723	(4)
Some definitions and terms	726	(1)
Limitations of the Mass Balance Hydrograph Separation Approach	727	(5)
Mass balance hydrograph separation models	727	(5)
Estimation of Transit Times-System Response Functions of Catchments	732	(19)
System response functions	732	(1)
System response functions based on the IUH	733	(5)
Application of system response functions based on the Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph	738	(3)
Identifying ``old'' and ``new'' water in terms of system response functions	741	(1)
Time series approaches to system response functions	742	(2)
Kalman filtering and residence times	744	(7)
Comparisons of Models of Isotopic and Chemical Hydrograph Separation	751	(6)
New Research Directions	757	(4)
Isotopes as Indicators of Environmental Change	761
J.B. Shanley
E. Pendall
C. Kendall
L.R. Stevens
R.L. Michel
P.J. Phillips
R.M. Forester
D.L. Naftz
B. Liu
L. Stern
B.B. Wolfe
C.P. Chamberlain
S.W. Leavitt
T.H.E. Heaton
B. Mayer
L.D. Cecil
W.B. Lyons
B.G. Katz
J.L. Betancourt
D.M. McKnight
J.D. Blum
T.W.D. Edwards
H.R. House
E. Ito
R.O. Aravena
J.F. Whelan
Introduction	761
Direct and proxy records of environmental change	762
Recent Environmental Change Indicators	763
Groundwater dating	763
Direct use of water isotopes to infer recent global change	765
Changes in land use deduced from tracer studies	766
Isotope tracers for tracking migratory patterns of birds	768
Changes in atmospheric deposition	771
Paleo-Climatic Indicators	776
Groundwater as an archive of paleo-climatic information	776
Continental glaciers	778
Clay minerals, oxides, and hydroxides	780
Pedogenic carbonates	782
Paleoenvironmental reconstruction from stable isotopes in tree rings and plant fossils	785
Lacustrine environments: organics	792
Lacustrine environments: authigenic carbonates	795
Lacustrine environments: ostracodes	799
New Research Directions	802
Summary	803