Learning and Behavior

by Mazur, James E.

• ISBN13: 9780130337153
• ISBN10: 0130337153
• Edition: 5th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2002-01-01
• Publisher: Taylor & Francis

Summary

This contemporary survey of the field of learning offers comprehensive coverage of both classic studies and the most recent developments and trends—with an emphasis on the importance of learning principles in everyday life. Many real-world examples and analogies make the often abstract concepts and theories of the field more concrete and relevant, and most chapters include sections that describe how the theories and principles have been used in the applied field of behavior modification. Simple Ideas, Simple Associations, and Simple Cells. Innate Behavior Patterns and Habituation. Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning. Theories and Research on Classical Conditioning. Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning. Reinforcement Schedules: Experimental Analyses and Applications. Avoidance and Punishment. Theories and Research on Operant Conditioning. Stimulus Control and Concept Formation. Comparative Cognition. Learning by Observation. Learning Motor Skills. Choice. For educators, social workers, and anyone interested in human learning behavior.

Table of Contents

Preface	xi
The Psychology of Learning and Behavior	1	(18)
The Search for General Principles of Learning	2	(2)
The Nature of Scientific Theories	4	(7)
An Example of a Theory about Behavior: Biorhythm Theory	4	(1)
The Major Components of Scientific Theories	5	(1)
Judging Scientific Theories	6	(1)
Issues and Techniques in Comparing Theory with Data	7	(4)
Behavioral and Cognitive Approaches to Learning	11	(5)
The Use of Animal Subjects	11	(2)
The Emphasis on External Events	13	(3)
On Free Will, Determinism, and Chaos Theory	16	(3)
Simple Ideas, Simple Associations, and Simple Cells	19	(18)
Early Theories about the Association of Ideas	19	(5)
Aristotle	19	(1)
The British Associationists: Simple and Complex Ideas	20	(2)
Thomas Brown's Secondary Principles of Association	22	(1)
Ebbinghaus's Experiments on Memory	23	(1)
Ebbinghaus's Major Findings	24	(3)
Ebbinghaus and the Associationists Compared to Later Learning Theorists	26	(1)
Physiological Facts and Theories Related to Associationism	27	(10)
The Basic Characteristics of Neurons	27	(1)
Physiological Research on ``Simple Sensations''	28	(2)
Physiological Research on ``Complex Ideas,''	30	(2)
Physiological Research on Associative Learning	32	(5)
Innate Behavior Patterns and Habituation	37	(21)
Characteristics of Goal-Directed Systems	38	(1)
Reflexes	39	(1)
Tropisms and Orientation	40	(2)
Kineses	40	(1)
Taxes	41	(1)
Sequences of Behavior	42	(3)
Fixed Action Patterns	42	(2)
Reaction Chains	44	(1)
Habituation	45	(13)
General Principles of Habituation	47	(2)
Physiological Mechanisms of Habituation	49	(3)
Habituation in Emotional Responses: The Opponent-Process Theory	52	(6)
Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning	58	(29)
Pavlov's Discovery and Its Impact	58	(9)
The Standard Paradigm of Classical Conditioning	59	(1)
The Variety of Conditioned Responses	60	(3)
Pavlov's Stimulus Substitution Theory	63	(2)
S-S or S-R Connections?	65	(1)
Pavlov's Influence on Psychology	66	(1)
Basic Conditioning Phenomena	67	(6)
Acquisition	67	(1)
Extinction	68	(1)
Spontaneous Recovery	69	(1)
Disinhibition	70	(1)
Rapid Reacquisition	70	(1)
Conditioned Inhibition	71	(1)
Generalization and Discrimination	72	(1)
Temporal Relationships between CS and US	73	(3)
CS-US Correlations	75	(1)
Other Conditioning Arrangements	76	(2)
Higher-Order Conditioning	76	(2)
Sensory Preconditioning	78	(1)
Classical Conditioning Outside the Laboratory	78	(9)
Classical Conditioning and Emotional Responses	78	(1)
Classical Conditioning and the Immune System	79	(1)
Applications in Behavior Therapy	80	(7)
Theories and Research on Classical Conditioning	87	(34)
Theories of Associative Learning	88	(11)
The Blocking Effect	88	(1)
The Rescorla-Wagner Model: Basic Concepts	89	(3)
The Rescorla-Wagner Model: Equations and Mathematical, Examples	92	(4)
Theories of CS Effectiveness	96	(2)
Comparator Theories of Conditioning	98	(1)
Summary	99	(1)
Types of Associations	99	(4)
Associations in First-Orders Conditioning	99	(1)
Associations in Second-Order Conditioning	100	(1)
Associations Involving Contextual Stimuli	100	(1)
CS-CS Associations	101	(1)
Occasion Setting	102	(1)
Summary	103	(1)
Biological Constraints on Classical Conditioning	103	(7)
The Contiguity Principle and Taste-Aversion Learning	104	(1)
Biological Preparedness in Taste-Aversion Learning	105	(2)
Biological Preparedness in Human Learning	107	(1)
Biological Constraints and the General-Principle Approach	108	(2)
The Form of the Conditioned Response	110	(4)
Drug Tolerance as a Conditioned Response	110	(2)
Conditioned Opponent Theories	112	(2)
Physiological Research on Classical Conditioning	114	(7)
Research With Primitive Creatures	114	(2)
Research With Mammals and Other Vertebrates	116	(1)
Research With Human Subjects	117	(4)
Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning	121	(27)
The Law of Effect	121	(8)
Thorndike's Experiments	121	(2)
Guthrie and Horton: Evidence for a Mechanical Strengthening Process	123	(1)
Superstitious Behaviors	124	(4)
Problems With the ``Stop-Action Principle,''	128	(1)
The Procedure of Shaping, or Successive Approximations	129	(5)
Shaping Lever Pressing in a Rat	129	(2)
Shaping Behaviors in the Classroom	131	(1)
Shaping as a Tool in Behavior Modification	131	(1)
Making Shaping More Precise: Percentile Schedules	132	(1)
Versatility of the Shaping Process	133	(1)
The Research of B. F. Skinner	134	(5)
The Free Operant	134	(1)
The Three-Term Contingency	135	(1)
Other Basic Principles: Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, and Conditioned Reinforcement	136	(1)
Response Chains	137	(2)
Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning	139	(9)
Instinctive Drift	139	(2)
Autoshaping	141	(4)
Reconciling Reinforcement Theory and Biological Constraints	145	(3)
Reinforcement Schedules: Experimental Analyses and Applications	148	(25)
Plotting Moment-to-Moment Behavior: The Cumulative Recorder	148	(1)
The Four Simple Reinforcement Schedules	149	(7)
Fixed Ratio	149	(1)
Variable Ratio	150	(2)
Fixed Interval	152	(1)
Variable Interval	153	(1)
Extinction and the Four Simple Schedules	154	(1)
Other Reinforcement Schedules	155	(1)
Factors Affecting Performance on Reinforcement Schedules	156	(4)
Behavioral Momentum	157	(1)
Contingency-Shaped versus Rule-Governed Behaviors	157	(2)
Reinforcement History	159	(1)
Summary	159	(1)
The Experimental Analysis of Reinforcement Schedules	160	(5)
The Cause of the FR Postreinforcement Pause	160	(1)
Comparisons of VR and VI Response Rates	161	(4)
Applications of Operant Conditioning	165	(8)
Teaching Language to Autistic Children	165	(2)
The Token Economy	167	(1)
Reinforcing Employee Performance	168	(2)
Behavioral Marital Therapy	170	(1)
Summary	171	(2)
Avoidance and Punishment	173	(29)
Avoidance	174	(10)
A Representative Experiment	174	(1)
Two-Factor Theory	175	(1)
Evidence Supporting Two-Factor Theory	176	(1)
Problems With Two-Factor Theory	176	(1)
One-Factor Theory	177	(2)
Cognitive Theory	179	(2)
Biological Constraints in Avoidance Learning	181	(1)
Conclusions about the Theories of Avoidance	182	(1)
Flooding as Behavior Therapy	183	(1)
Learned Helplessness	184	(2)
Punishment	186	(6)
Is Punishment the Opposite of Reinforcement?	187	(1)
Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Punishment	188	(2)
Disadvantages of Using Punishment	190	(2)
Negative Punishment	192	(1)
Behavior Decelerators in Behavior Therapy	192	(10)
Positive Punishment	192	(2)
Negative Punishment: Response Cost and Time-Out	194	(2)
Other Techniques for Behavior Deceleration	196	(3)
The Aversives Controversy	199	(3)
Theories and Research on Operant Conditioning	202	(25)
The Role of the Response	202	(1)
The Role of the Reinforcer	203	(9)
Is Reinforcement Necessary for Operant Conditioning?	203	(2)
Expectations About the Reinforcers	205	(1)
Is Reinforcement at Work in Classical Conditioning?	206	(2)
Can Reinforcement Control Visceral Responses?	208	(1)
Biofeedback	209	(3)
How Can We Predict What Will Be a Reinforcer?	212	(9)
Need Reduction	212	(1)
Drive Reduction	213	(1)
Trans-Situationality	214	(1)
Premack's Principle	214	(4)
Response Deprivation Theory	218	(1)
The Functional Analysis of Behaviors and Reinforcers	219	(2)
Behavioral Economics	221	(6)
Optimization: Theory and Research	221	(2)
Elasticity and Inelasticity of Demand	223	(1)
Behavioral Economics and Drug Abuse	224	(3)
Stimulus Control and Concept Formation	227	(26)
Generalization Gradients	227	(5)
Measuring Generalization Gradients	227	(2)
What Causes Generalization Gradients?	229	(3)
Is Stimulus Control Absolute or Relational?	232	(6)
Transposition and Peak Shift	233	(1)
Spence's Theory of Excitatory and Inhibitory Gradients	234	(1)
The Intermediate-Size Problem	235	(1)
Evaluating the Two Theories	236	(2)
Behavioral Contrast	238	(2)
``Errorless'' Discrimination Learning	240	(2)
Transfer of Learning After Discrimination Training	242	(2)
Concept Formation	244	(5)
The Structure of Natural Categories	245	(1)
Animal Studies on Natural Concept Formation	246	(2)
Developing Stimulus Equivalence	248	(1)
Stimulus Control in Behavior Modification	249	(4)
Stimulus Equivalence Training	250	(1)
Study Behavior	250	(1)
Insomnia	251	(2)
Comparative Cognition	253	(29)
Memory	253	(12)
Short-Term Memory, or Working Memory	254	(5)
Rehearsal	259	(4)
Long-Term Memory, or Reference Memory	263	(2)
Time, Number, and Serial Patterns	265	(8)
Experiments on an ``Internal Clock,''	265	(3)
Counting	268	(2)
Serial Pattern Learning	270	(1)
Chunking	270	(3)
Language and Reasoning	273	(9)
Teaching Language to Animals	273	(4)
Reasoning by Animals	277	(5)
Learning by Observation	282	(22)
Theories of Imitation	283	(7)
Imitation as an Instinct	283	(2)
Imitation as an Operant Response	285	(1)
Imitation as a Generalized Operant Response	285	(1)
Bandura's Theory of Imitation	286	(2)
Which Theory of Imitation is Best?	288	(2)
Factors That Affect the Likelihood of Imitation	290	(1)
Interactions Between Observational Learning and Operant Conditioning	291	(2)
Achievement Motivation	291	(1)
Aggression	292	(1)
The Influence of Television	293	(2)
What Can Be Learned through Observation?	295	(3)
Phobias	295	(1)
Drug Use and Addictions	295	(1)
Cognitive Development	296	(1)
Moral Standards and Behavior	297	(1)
Modeling in Behavior Therapy	297	(1)
Facilitation of Low-Probability Behaviors	298	(9)
Acquisition of New Behaviors	298	(1)
Elimination of Fears and Unwanted Behaviors	299	(2)
Videotape Self-Modeling	301	(6)
Conclusions: The Sophisticated Skill of Learning by Observation	307
Learning Motor Skills	304	(23)
The Variety of Motor Skills	304	(2)
Variables Affecting Motor Learning and Performance	306	(8)
Reinforcement and Knowledge of Results	306	(3)
Knowledge of Performance	309	(2)
Distribution of Practice	311	(1)
Observational Learning of Motor Skills	312	(1)
Transfer from Previous Training	312	(2)
Ironic Errors in Movement	314	(1)
Theories of Motor-Skill Learning	314	(6)
Adam's Two-Stage Theory	314	(3)
Schmidt's Schema Theory	317	(3)
Learning Movement Sequences	320	(7)
The Response Chain Approach	320	(1)
Motor Programs	321	(6)
Choice	327	(31)
The Matching Law	328	(7)
Herrnstein's (1961) Experiment	328	(1)
Other Experiments on Matching	329	(1)
Deviations from Matching	330	(1)
Varying the Quality and Amount of Reinforcement	331	(1)
An Application to Single Schedules	332	(3)
Theories of Choice Behavior	335	(9)
Matching as an Explanatory Theory	336	(1)
Melioration Theory	336	(1)
Optimization Theory as an Explanation of Matching	337	(4)
Momentary Maximization Theory	341	(2)
Other Theories of Choice	343	(1)
Self-Control Choices	344	(7)
The Ainslie-Rachlin Theory	345	(1)
Animal Studies on Self-Control	346	(3)
Factors Affecting Self-Control in Children	349	(1)
Techniques for Improving Self-Control	350	(1)
Other Choice Situations	351	(7)
Preference for Variability	352	(1)
Risk Taking	353	(1)
The Tragedy of the Commons	354	(4)
Glossary	358	(15)
References	373	(46)
Acknowledgments	419	(4)
Author Index	423	(12)
Subject Index	435