Measurement and Instrumentation Principles

by Morris

• ISBN13: 9780750650816
• ISBN10: 0750650818
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2001-03-27
• Publisher: Elsevier Science & Technology

Summary

'Measurement and Instrumentation Principles' is the latest edition of a successful book that introduces undergraduate students to the measurement principles and the range of sensors and instruments that are used for measuring physical variables. Completely updated to include new technologies such as smart sensors, displays and interfaces, the 3rd edition also contains plenty of worked examples and self-assessment questions (and solutions). In addition, a new chapter on safety issues focuses on the legal framework, electrical safety and failsafe designs, and the author has also concentrated on RF and optical wireless communications. Fully up-to-date and comprehensively written, this textbook is essential for all engineering undergraduates, especially those in the first two years of their course.

Author Biography

Dr Alan S Morris is based at the University of Sheffield, in the Department of Automatic Control and Systems Engineering

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
Acknowledgements	xx
Part 1: Principles of Measurement	1	(244)
Introduction to Measurement	3	(9)
Measurement units	3	(3)
Measurement system applications	6	(2)
Elements of a measurement system	8	(1)
Choosing appropriate measuring instruments	9	(3)
Instrument Types and Performance Characteristics	12	(20)
Review of instrument types	12	(4)
Active and passive instruments	12	(1)
Null-type and deflection-type instruments	13	(1)
Analogue and digital instruments	14	(1)
Indicating instruments and instruments with a signal output	15	(1)
Smart and non-smart instruments	16	(1)
Static characteristics of instruments	16	(7)
Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty)	16	(1)
Precision/repeatability/reproducibility	17	(1)
Tolerance	17	(1)
Range or span	18	(1)
Linearity	19	(1)
Sensitivity of measurement	19	(1)
Threshold	20	(1)
Resolution	20	(1)
Sensitivity to disturbance	20	(2)
Hysteresis effects	22	(1)
Dead space	23	(1)
Dynamic characteristics of instruments	23	(6)
Zero order instrument	25	(1)
First order instrument	25	(3)
Second order instrument	28	(1)
Necessity for calibration	29	(1)
Self-test questions	30	(2)
Errors During the Measurement Process	32	(32)
Introduction	32	(1)
Sources of systematic error	33	(6)
System disturbance due to measurement	33	(4)
Errors due to environmental inputs	37	(1)
Wear in instrument components	38	(1)
Connecting leads	38	(1)
Reduction of systematic errors	39	(3)
Careful instrument design	39	(1)
Method of opposing inputs	39	(1)
High-gain feedback	39	(2)
Calibration	41	(1)
Manual correction of output reading	42	(1)
Intelligent instruments	42	(1)
Quantification of systematic errors	42	(1)
Random errors	42	(14)
Statistical analysis of measurements subject to random errors	43	(3)
Graphical data analysis techniques --- frequency distributions	46	(10)
Aggregation of measurement system errors	56	(4)
Combined effect of systematic and random errors	56	(1)
Aggregation of errors from separate measurement system components	56	(3)
Total error when combining multiple measurements	59	(1)
Self-test questions	60	(4)
References and further reading	63	(1)
Calibration of Measuring Sensors and Instruments	64	(9)
Principles of calibration	64	(2)
Control of calibration environment	66	(1)
Calibration chain and traceability	67	(4)
Calibration records	71	(2)
References and further reading	72	(1)
Measurement Noise and Signal Processing	73	(29)
Sources of Measurement noise	73	(3)
Inductive coupling	74	(1)
Capacitive (electrostatic) coupling	74	(1)
Noise due to multiple earths	74	(1)
Noise in the form of voltage transients	75	(1)
Thermoelectric potentials	75	(1)
Shot noise	76	(1)
Electrochemical potentials	76	(1)
Techniques for reducing measurement noise	76	(2)
Location and design of signal wires	76	(1)
Earthing	77	(1)
Shielding	77	(1)
Other techniques	77	(1)
Introduction to signal processing	78	(1)
Analogue signal filtering	78	(8)
Passive analogue filters	81	(4)
Active analogue filters	85	(1)
Other analogue signal processing operations	86	(9)
Signal amplification	87	(1)
Signal attenuation	88	(1)
Differential amplification	89	(1)
Signal linearization	90	(1)
Bias (zero drift) removal	91	(1)
Signal integration	92	(1)
Voltage follower (pre-amplifier)	92	(1)
Voltage comparator	92	(1)
Phase-sensitive detector	93	(1)
Lock-in amplifier	94	(1)
Signal addition	94	(1)
Signal multiplication	95	(1)
Digital signal processing	95	(7)
Signal sampling	95	(2)
Sample and hold circuit	97	(1)
Analogue-to-digital converters	97	(2)
Digital-to-analogue (D/A) conversion	99	(1)
Digital filtering	100	(1)
Autocorrelation	100	(1)
Other digital signal processing operations	101	(1)
References and further reading	101	(1)
Electrical Indicating and Test Instruments	102	(17)
Digital meters	102	(2)
Voltage-to-time conversion digital voltmeter	103	(1)
Potentiometric digital voltmeter	103	(1)
Dual-slope integration digital voltmeter	103	(1)
Voltage-to-frequency conversion digital voltmeter	104	(1)
Digital multimeter	104	(1)
Analogue meters	104	(10)
Moving-coil meters	105	(1)
Moving-iron meter	106	(1)
Electrodynamic meters	107	(1)
Clamp-on meters	108	(1)
Analogue multimeter	108	(1)
Measuring high-frequency signals	109	(1)
Thermocouple meter	110	(1)
Electronic analogue voltmeters	111	(1)
Calculation of meter outputs for non-standard waveforms	112	(2)
Cathode ray oscilloscope	114	(4)
Cathode ray tube	115	(1)
Channel	116	(1)
Single-ended input	117	(1)
Differential input	117	(1)
Timebase circuit	117	(1)
Vertical sensitivity control	117	(1)
Display position control	118	(1)
Digital storage oscilloscopes	118	(1)
References and further reading	118	(1)
Variable Conversion Elements	119	(32)
Bridge circuits	119	(15)
Null-type, d.c. bridge (Wheatstone bridge)	120	(1)
Deflection-type d.c. bridge	121	(7)
Error analysis	128	(2)
A.c. bridges	130	(4)
Resistance measurement	134	(4)
D.c. bridge circuit	135	(1)
Voltmeter---ammeter method	135	(1)
Resistance-substitution method	135	(1)
Use of the digital voltmeter to measure resistance	136	(1)
The ohmmeter	136	(1)
Codes for resistor values	137	(1)
Inductance measurement	138	(1)
Capacitance measurement	138	(2)
Alphanumeric codes for capacitor values	139	(1)
Current measurement	140	(1)
Frequency measurement	141	(4)
Digital counter-timers	142	(1)
Phase-locked loop	142	(1)
Cathode ray oscilloscope	143	(1)
The Wien bridge	144	(1)
Phase measurement	145	(2)
Electronic counter-timer	145	(1)
X---Y plotter	145	(2)
Oscilloscope	147	(1)
Phase-sensitive detector	147	(1)
Self-test questions	147	(4)
References and further reading	150	(1)
Signal Transmission	151	(14)
Electrical transmission	151	(3)
Transmission as varying voltages	151	(1)
Current loop transmission	152	(1)
Transmission using an a.c. carrier	153	(1)
Pneumatic transmission	154	(1)
Fibre-optic transmission	155	(5)
Principles of fibre optics	156	(2)
Transmission characteristics	158	(2)
Multiplexing schemes	160	(1)
Optical wireless telemetry	160	(1)
Radio telemetry (radio wireless transmission)	161	(2)
Digital transmission protocols	163	(2)
References and further reading	164	(1)
Digital Computation and Intelligent Devices	165	(22)
Principles of digital computation	165	(12)
Elements of a computer	165	(3)
Computer operation	168	(6)
Interfacing	174	(2)
Practical considerations in adding computers to measurement systems	176	(1)
Intelligent devices	177	(8)
Intelligent instruments	177	(2)
Smart sensors	179	(1)
Smart transmitters	180	(3)
Communication with intelligent devices	183	(1)
Computation in intelligent devices	184	(1)
Future trends in intelligent devices	185	(1)
Self-test questions	185	(2)
References and further reading	186	(1)
Instrumentation/Computer Networks	187	(13)
Introduction	187	(1)
Serial communication lines	188	(2)
Asynchronous transmission	189	(1)
Parallel data bus	190	(2)
Local area networks (LANs)	192	(3)
Star networks	193	(1)
Ring and bus networks	194	(1)
Gateways	195	(1)
HART	195	(1)
Digital fieldbuses	196	(2)
Communication protocols for very large systems	198	(1)
Protocol standardization	198	(1)
Future development of networks	199	(1)
References and further reading	199	(1)
Display, Recording and Presentation of Measurement Data	200	(24)
Display of measurement signals	200	(2)
Electronic output displays	200	(1)
Computer monitor displays	201	(1)
Recording of measurement data	202	(10)
Mechanical chart recorders	202	(6)
Ultra-violet recorders	208	(1)
Fibre-optic recorders (recording oscilloscopes)	209	(1)
Hybrid chart recorders	209	(1)
Magnetic tape recorders	209	(1)
Digital recorders	210	(1)
Storage oscilloscopes	211	(1)
Presentation of data	212	(10)
Tabular data presentation	212	(1)
Graphical presentation of data	213	(9)
Self-test questions	222	(2)
References and further reading	223	(1)
Measurement Reliability and Safety Systems	224	(21)
Reliability	224	(12)
Principles of reliability	224	(4)
Laws of reliability in complex systems	228	(1)
Improving measurement system reliability	229	(3)
Software reliability	232	(4)
Safety systems	236	(5)
Introduction to safety systems	236	(1)
Operation of safety systems	237	(1)
Design of a safety system	238	(3)
Self-test questions	241	(4)
References and further reading	242	(3)
Part 2: Measurement Sensors and Instruments	245	(200)
Sensor Technologies	247	(24)
Capacitive and resistive sensors	247	(1)
Magnetic sensors	247	(2)
Hall-effect sensors	249	(1)
Piezoelectric transducers	250	(1)
Strain gauges	251	(1)
Piezoresistive sensors	252	(1)
Optical sensors (air path)	252	(1)
Optical sensors (fibre-optic)	253	(6)
Intrinsic sensors	254	(4)
Extrinsic sensors	258	(1)
Distributed sensors	259	(1)
Ultrasonic transducers	259	(8)
Transmission speed	260	(1)
Direction of travel of ultrasound waves	261	(1)
Directionality of ultrasound waves	261	(1)
Relationship between wavelength, frequency and directionality of ultrasound waves	262	(1)
Attenuation of ultrasound waves	262	(1)
Ultrasound as a range sensor	263	(1)
Use of ultrasound in tracking 3D object motion	264	(1)
Effect of noise in ultrasonic measurement systems	265	(1)
Exploiting Doppler shift in ultrasound transmission	265	(2)
Ultrasonic imaging	267	(1)
Nuclear sensors	267	(1)
Microsensors	268	(3)
References and further reading	270	(1)
Temperature Measurement	271	(33)
Principles of temperature measurement	271	(1)
Thermoelectric effect sensors (thermocouples)	272	(11)
Thermocouple tables	276	(1)
Non-zero reference junction temperature	277	(2)
Thermocouple types	279	(1)
Thermocouple protection	280	(1)
Thermocouple manufacture	281	(1)
The thermopile	282	(1)
Digital thermometer	282	(1)
The continuous thermocouple	282	(1)
Varying resistance devices	283	(3)
Resistance thermometers (resistance temperature devices)	284	(1)
Thermistors	285	(1)
Semiconductor devices	286	(1)
Radiation thermometers	287	(6)
Optical pyrometers	289	(1)
Radiation pyrometers	290	(3)
Thermography (thermal imaging)	293	(1)
Thermal expansion methods	294	(3)
Liquid-in-glass thermometers	295	(1)
Bimetallic thermometer	296	(1)
Pressure thermometers	296	(1)
Quartz thermometers	297	(1)
Fibre-optic temperature sensors	297	(1)
Acoustic thermometers	298	(1)
Colour indicators	299	(1)
Change of state of materials	299	(1)
Intelligent temperature-measuring instruments	300	(1)
Choice between temperature transducers	300	(2)
Self-test questions	302	(2)
References and further reading	303	(1)
Pressure Measurement	304	(15)
Diaphragms	305	(1)
Capacitive pressure sensor	306	(1)
Fibre-optic pressure sensors	306	(1)
Bellows	307	(1)
Bourdon tube	308	(2)
Manometers	310	(1)
Resonant-wire devices	311	(1)
Dead-weight gauge	312	(1)
Special measurement devices for low pressures	312	(3)
High-pressure measurement (greater than 7000 bar)	315	(1)
Intelligent pressure transducers	316	(1)
Selection of pressure sensors	316	(3)
Flow Measurement	319	(21)
Mass flow rate	319	(2)
Conveyor-based methods	319	(1)
Coriolis flowmeter	320	(1)
Thermal mass flow measurement	320	(1)
Joint measurement of volume flow rate and fluid density	321	(1)
Volume flow rate	321	(17)
Differential pressure (obstruction-type) meters	322	(5)
Variable area flowmeters (Rotameters)	327	(1)
Positive displacement flowmeters	328	(1)
Turbine meters	329	(1)
Electromagnetic flowmeters	330	(2)
Vortex-shedding flowmeters	332	(1)
Ultrasonic flowmeters	332	(4)
Other types of flowmeter for measuring volume flow rate	336	(2)
Intelligent flowmeters	338	(1)
Choice between flowmeters for particular applications	338	(2)
References and further reading	339	(1)
Level Measurement	340	(12)
Dipsticks	340	(1)
Float systems	340	(1)
Pressure-measuring devices (hydrostatic systems)	341	(2)
Capacitive devices	343	(1)
Ultrasonic level gauge	344	(2)
Radar (microwave) methods	346	(1)
Radiation methods	346	(2)
Other techniques	348	(3)
Vibrating level sensor	348	(1)
Hot-wire elements/carbon resistor elements	348	(1)
Laser methods	349	(1)
Fibre-optic level sensors	349	(1)
Thermography	349	(2)
Intelligent level-measuring instruments	351	(1)
Choice between different level sensors	351	(1)
References and further reading	351	(1)
Mass, Force and Torque Measurement	352	(13)
Mass (weight) measurement	352	(7)
Electronic load cell (electronic balance)	352	(2)
Pneumatic/hydraulic load cells	354	(1)
Intelligent load cells	355	(1)
Mass-balance (weighing) instruments	356	(3)
Spring balance	359	(1)
Force measurement	359	(2)
Use of accelerometers	360	(1)
Vibrating wire sensor	360	(1)
Torque measurement	361	(4)
Reaction forces in shaft bearings	361	(1)
Prony brake	361	(1)
Measurement of induced strain	362	(2)
Optical torque measurement	364	(1)
Translational Motion Transducers	365	(25)
Displacement	365	(17)
The resistive potentiometer	365	(3)
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)	368	(2)
Variable capacitance transducers	370	(1)
Variable inductance transducers	371	(1)
Strain gauges	371	(2)
Piezoelectric transducers	373	(1)
Nozzle flapper	373	(1)
Other methods of measuring small displacements	374	(4)
Measurement of large displacements (range sensors)	378	(3)
Proximity sensors	381	(1)
Selection of translational measurement transducers	382	(1)
Velocity	382	(1)
Differentiation of displacement measurements	382	(1)
Integration of the output of an accelerometer	383	(1)
Conversion to rotational velocity	383	(1)
Acceleration	383	(3)
Selection of accelerometers	385	(1)
Vibration	386	(2)
Nature of vibration	386	(1)
Vibration measurement	386	(2)
Shock	388	(2)
Rotational Motion Transducers	390	(29)
Rotational displacement	390	(17)
Circular and helical potentiometers	390	(1)
Rotational differential transformer	391	(1)
Incremental shaft encoders	392	(2)
Coded-disc shaft encoders	394	(4)
The resolver	398	(1)
The synchro	399	(3)
The induction potentiometer	402	(1)
The rotary inductosyn	402	(1)
Gyroscopes	402	(4)
Choice between rotational displacement transducers	406	(1)
Rotational velocity	407	(10)
Digital tachometers	407	(3)
Stroboscopic methods	410	(1)
Analogue tachometers	411	(2)
Mechanical flyball	413	(2)
The rate gyroscope	415	(1)
Fibre-optic gyroscope	416	(1)
Differentiation of angular displacement measurements	417	(1)
Integration of the output from an accelerometer	417	(1)
Choice between rotational velocity transducers	417	(1)
Measurement of rotational acceleration	417	(2)
References and further reading	418	(1)
Summary of Other Measurements	419	(26)
Dimension measurement	419	(7)
Rules and tapes	419	(2)
Callipers	421	(1)
Micrometers	422	(1)
Gauge blocks (slip gauges) and length bars	423	(2)
Height and depth measurement	425	(1)
Angle measurement	426	(2)
Flatness measurement	428	(1)
Volume measurement	428	(1)
Viscosity measurement	429	(3)
Capillary and tube viscometers	430	(1)
Falling body viscometer	431	(1)
Rotational viscometers	431	(1)
Moisture measurement	432	(4)
Industrial moisture measurement techniques	432	(2)
Laboratory techniques for moisture measurement	434	(1)
Humidity measurement	435	(1)
Sound measurement	436	(1)
pH measurement	437	(2)
The glass electrode	438	(1)
Other methods of pH measurement	439	(1)
Gas sensing and analysis	439	(6)
Catalytic (calorimetric) sensors	440	(1)
Paper tape sensors	441	(1)
Liquid electrolyte electrochemical cells	441	(1)
Solid-state electrochemical cells (zirconia sensor)	442	(1)
Catalytic gate FETs	442	(1)
Semiconductor (metal oxide) sensors	442	(1)
Organic sensors	442	(1)
Piezoelectric devices	443	(1)
Infra-red absorption	443	(1)
Mass spectrometers	443	(1)
Gas chromatography	443	(1)
References and further reading	444	(1)
Appendix 1 Imperial---metric---SI conversion tables	445	(7)
Appendix 2 Thevenin's theorem	452	(6)
Appendix 3 Thermocouple tables	458	(6)
Appendix 4 Solutions to self-test questions	464	(5)
Index	469