Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity Standard Methods for Mammals

by Wilson, Don E.; Nichols, James D.; Foster, Mercedes; Cole, F. Russell; Rudran, Rasanayagam

• ISBN13: 9781560986379
• ISBN10: 1560986379
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 1996-08-17
• Publisher: Smithsonian Books

Summary

Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Mammalsprovides a comprehensive manual for designing and implementing inventories of mammalian biodiversity anywhere in the world and for any group, from rodents to open-country grazers. The book emphasizes formal estimation approaches, which supply data that can be compared across habitats and over time. Beginning with brief natural histories of the twenty-six orders of living mammals, the book details the field techniquesobservation, capture, and sign interpretationappropriate to different species. The contributors provide guidelines for study design, discuss survey planning, describe statistical techniques, and outline methods of translating field data into electronic formats. Extensive appendixes address such issues as the ethical treatment of aimals in research, human health concerns, preserving voucher specimens, and assessing age, sex, and reproductive condition in mammals. Useful in both developed and developing countries, this volume and the Biological Diversity Handbook Series as a whole establish essential standards for a key aspect of conservation biology and resource management.

Author Biography

Don E. Wilson is director for biodiversity programs at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. F. Russell Cole is Oak Professor of Biological Sciences in the Department of Biology, Colby College. James D. Nichols is a research biologist with the National Biological Service, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. Rasanayagam Rudran is a conservation training officer with the National Zoological Park. Mercedes S. Foster is a research zoologist and curator of birds with the National Biological Service, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution.

Table of Contents

Figures	xiii
Tables	xvii
Authors and Contributors	xix
Foreword	xxi
Robert S. Hoffmann
Preface	xxv
Origin of Publication	xxv
Authorship	xxvi
Acknowledgments	xxvi
Introduction	1	(8)
Don E. Wilson
James D. Nichols
Rasanayagam Rudran
Colin Southwell
Background	1	(1)
Biodiversity at Regional and Landscape Levels	2	(1)
Biodiversity at Ecosystem, Community, and Population Levels	3	(1)
Concepts of Biodiversity at the Community Level	4	(1)
Previous Work	5	(1)
Purpose of This Volume	5	(1)
Intended Audience	6	(1)
Organization	6	(3)
Mammalian Diversity and Natural History	9	(32)
F. Russell Cole
Don E. Wilson
Introduction	9	(1)
Geographic Considerations	10	(3)
Distributions and Zoogeographic Relationships of Mammals	13	(2)
Natural History of Mammals	15	(22)
Order Monotremata	15	(1)
Order Didelphimorphia	15	(8)
Order Paucituberculata	23	(1)
Order Microbiotheria	23	(1)
Order Dasyuromorphia	23	(1)
Order Peramelemorphia	24	(1)
Order Notoryctemorphia	24	(1)
Order Diprotodontia	25	(1)
Order Xenarthra	26	(1)
Order Insectivora	26	(1)
Order Scandentia	27	(1)
Order Dermoptera	27	(1)
Order Chiroptera	27	(1)
Order Primates	28	(1)
Order Carnivora	29	(1)
Order Cetacea	30	(1)
Order Sirenia	31	(1)
Order Proboscidea	31	(1)
Order Perissodactyla	31	(1)
Order Hyracoidea	32	(1)
Order Tubulidentata	32	(1)
Order Artiodactyla	32	(1)
Order Pholidota	33	(1)
Order Rodentia	33	(3)
Order Lagomorpha	36	(1)
Order Macroscelidea	37	(1)
Information Needs	37	(1)
Conservation Status	37	(4)
Designing a Study to Assess Mammalian Diversity	41	(10)
Michael J. Conroy
James D. Nichols
Introduction	41	(1)
Statistical Concepts	42	(1)
Designing a Sample Survey	42	(3)
Target and Sampled Populations	42	(1)
Selection of Sampling Units	43	(1)
Determining Sample Size	43	(1)
Stratification	44	(1)
Interpreting Animal Count Statistics	45	(4)
Observability	45	(1)
Sampling Variability	45	(1)
Use of Count Statistics in Estimation	45	(1)
Use of Count Statistics in Comparative Studies	46	(2)
Standardization	48	(1)
Developing a Species List	48	(1)
Conclusions	49	(2)
Keys to a Successful Project: Associated Data and Planning	51	(20)
Introduction	51	(1)
Climate and Environment	52	(4)
Martha L. Crump
Basic Weather Data	52	(1)
Additional Environmental Data	53	(1)
Measuring Weather Variables	54	(1)
Weather Conditions and Study Design	55	(1)
Data Standards	56	(4)
Roy W. McDiarmid
Don E. Wilson
Geographic Characterization	57	(1)
Habitat	57	(3)
Sampling Methodology	60	(1)
Microhabitat Description	60	(3)
Robert F. Inger
Don E. Wilson
Characteristics of a Microhabitat Checklist	61	(1)
Basic Descriptors for a Microhabitat Checklist	61	(1)
Field Methods	62	(1)
Voucher Specimens	63	(5)
Robert P. Reynolds
Ronald I. Crombie
Roy W. McDiarmid
Terry L. Yates
Field Identification	63	(1)
Sample Size	64	(2)
Specimen Data	66	(1)
Selection of a Specimen Repository	66	(2)
Permits	68	(3)
Roy W. McDiarmid
Robert P. Reynolds
Ronald I. Crombie
Conducting a Survey to Assess Mammalian Diversity	71	(10)
Rasanayagam Rudran
Mercedes S. Foster
Introduction	71	(1)
Objectives	72	(1)
Defining the Scope of a Survey	72	(1)
Species Lists	72	(1)
Selecting Target Species	72	(1)
Choosing Field Techniques	73	(2)
Appropriateness	73	(1)
Physical Characteristics and Behavior of Species	73	(1)
Size of the Survey Area	74	(1)
Habitat and Climate	74	(1)
Personnel and Time	74	(1)
Budget and Equipment	74	(1)
Integrating Theory and Practice	75	(4)
Use of Maps	75	(1)
Measuring the Size of a Sample Unit	75	(1)
Choosing a Random Sample	76	(1)
Choosing Random Points	77	(1)
Minimizing Error	77	(2)
Conclusions	79	(2)
Observational Techniques for Nonvolant Mammals	81	(24)
Rasanayagam Rudran
Thomas H. Kunz
Colin Southwell
Peter Jarman
Andrew P. Smith
Introduction	81	(2)
Density and Relative Abundance	82	(1)
Total Counts and Sample Counts	82	(1)
Drives and Silent Detection Methods	82	(1)
Drives	83	(3)
Drives for Total Counts	83	(1)
Drives for Sample Counts	84	(2)
Silent Detection for Total Counts	86	(3)
Individual Identification	86	(1)
Observation of Emergence from Dens and Burrows	87	(1)
Total Counts From Mobile Platforms	88	(1)
Silent Detection for Sample Counts	89	(8)
Line Transects	89	(4)
Strip Transects	93	(1)
Nonlinear Frequency-Density Plot	94	(1)
Road Counts	95	(1)
Quadrat Sampling	95	(2)
Special Techniques	97	(8)
Aerial Surveys	97	(5)
Marine Mammal Surveys	102	(1)
Call Playbacks	103	(1)
Night Surveys	103	(2)
Observational Techniques for Bats	105	(10)
Thomas H. Kunz
Donald W. Thomas
Gregory C. Richards
Christopher R. Tidemann
Elizabeth D. Pierson
Paul A. Racey
Introduction	105	(1)
Roosting Bats	106	(5)
Direct Roost Counts	106	(1)
Disturbance Counts at Roosts	107	(1)
Nightly Dispersal Counts	107	(1)
Roost Counts at Maternity Colonies	108	(1)
Nightly Emergence Counts	109	(1)
Counts of Foliage- and Cavity-Roosting Bats	110	(1)
Counts of Hibernating Bats	110	(1)
Flying Bats	111	(4)
Counts with Motion Detectors	111	(1)
Ultrasonic Bat Detection	111	(4)
Capturing Mammals	115	(42)
Clyde Jones
William J. McShea
Michael J. Conroy
Thomas H. Kunz
Introduction	115	(1)
Small Terrestrial Mammals	116	(6)
Capture Devices	116	(2)
Bait	118	(2)
Trap Arrays	120	(2)
Time Interval	122	(1)
Handling	122	(1)
Small Volant Mammals	122	(24)
Thomas H. Kunz
Christopher R. Tidemann
Gregory C. Richards
Capturing Bats in Roosts	123	(2)
Capturing Flying Bats	125	(18)
Preparation for Field Study	143	(1)
Handling Bats	143	(1)
Holding Devices for Bats	144	(1)
Examining Bats and Keeping Records	145	(1)
Medium-Size Terrestrial Carnivores	146	(2)
Capture Devices	146	(1)
Bait	146	(1)
Trap Arrays	147	(1)
Time Interval	147	(1)
Handling	147	(1)
Other Capture Methods	147	(1)
Medium-Size Terrestrial Herbivores	148	(2)
Capture Devices	148	(1)
Bait	149	(1)
Trap Arrays	149	(1)
Time Interval	149	(1)
Handling	150	(1)
Other Capture Methods	150	(1)
Other Medium-Size Mammals	150	(1)
Scansorial Species	150	(1)
Arboreal Species	151	(1)
Semifossorial and Semiaquatic Species	151	(1)
Large Terrestrial Mammals	151	(3)
Capture Devices	151	(1)
Bait	152	(1)
Trap Arrays	152	(1)
Time Interval	152	(1)
Handling	153	(1)
Other Capture Methods	153	(1)
Fossorial Mammals	154	(1)
Capture Devices	154	(1)
Trap Use	154	(1)
Unusual Mammals	155	(2)
Mammalian Sign	157	(20)
Christen Wemmer
Thomas H. Kunz
Geoffrey Lundie-Jenkins
William J. McShea
Introduction	157	(1)
Visually Detected Sign	158	(7)
Structures and Habitat Features	158	(1)
Tracks	158	(5)
Stored Food and Food Remains	163	(1)
Scats	163	(2)
Olfactory Sign	165	(1)
Remote-Trip Cameras	165	(6)
Camera Equipment	167	(2)
Trigger Mechanisms	169	(1)
Video Cameras	170	(1)
Camera Placement	170	(1)
Sampling	170	(1)
Target Organisms and Habitats	171	(2)
Research Design	173	(2)
Standing Crop Method	173	(1)
Accumulation of Sign Methods	174	(1)
Sign-Marking Methods	174	(1)
Size, Shape, and Placement of Samples	174	(1)
Field Methods	175	(1)
Data Handling, Analysis, and Interpretation	175	(1)
Data Handling	175	(1)
Analysis and Interpretation	175	(1)
Special Considerations	176	(1)
Personnel and Materials	176	(1)
Techniques for Estimating Abundance and Species Richness	177	(58)
Estimation of Mammal Abundance	177	(49)
Introduction	177	(2)
James D. Nichols
Michael J. Conroy
Abundance Indices	179	(13)
Michael J. Conroy
Complete Counts	192	(1)
Peter Jarman
Andrew P. Smith
Colin Southwell
Estimation of Population Size and Density When Counts Are Incomplete	193	(17)
Colin Southwell
Removal Methods	210	(7)
Richard A. Lancia
John W. Bishir
Capture-Recapture Methods	217	(9)
James D. Nichols
Chris R. Dickman
Recommendations	226	(1)
Michael J. Conroy
James D. Nichols
Estimation of Species Richness	226	(9)
James D. Nichols
Michael J. Conroy
Indices of Species Richness	228	(1)
Quadrant-Based Sampling	229	(2)
Multiple Sampling Occasions	231	(1)
Empirical Species-Abundance Distributions	232	(1)
Field Application	233	(2)
The Geographic Information System for Storage and Analysis of Biodiversity Data	235	(12)
Peter August
Carol Baker
Charles LaBash
Christopher Smith
Introduction	235	(1)
Spatial Data	236	(3)
Representing Map Data in Analog and Digital Formats	236	(2)
Attributes: What the Spatial Data Represent	238	(1)
Special Properties of Spatial Data: Cartography 101	238	(1)
System Design	239	(1)
Developing a Database	239	(3)
Keyboard Entry of Coordinates	239	(1)
Digitizing	239	(1)
Scanning	240	(1)
Global Positioning Systems	241	(1)
Radiotelemetry	241	(1)
Existing Digital Data	241	(1)
Data Handling	242	(1)
Data Analysis	242	(3)
Overlay Procedures	242	(2)
Generalization	244	(1)
Neighbor or Proximity Analysis	244	(1)
Analyses of Connectance	244	(1)
Modeling and Spatial Mathematics	244	(1)
Terrain Analysis	244	(1)
Special Considerations	245	(1)
Purchasing a System	245	(1)
Conclusions	246	(1)
Conclusions and Recommendations	247	(4)
Data Maintenance	248	(1)
What Next?	248	(3)
Appendix 1: Ethics in Research	251	(4)
Rasanayagam Rudran
Thomas H. Kunz
Introduction	251	(1)
Legal and Cultural Considerations	252	(1)
Regulations and Permits	252	(1)
Religious and Cultural Concerns	252	(1)
Trapping Animals	252	(1)
Sample Size	252	(1)
Kill-Trapping and Shooting	253	(1)
Live-Trapping and Netting	253	(1)
Use of Capture Guns	253	(1)
Processing and Handling Animals	253	(2)
General Considerations	253	(1)
Marking Animals	254	(1)
Collecting Tissue and Fluid	254	(1)
Holding, Transporting, and Releasing Animals	254	(1)
Appendix 2: Human Health Concerns	255	(10)
Thomas H. Kunz
Rasanayagam Rudran
Gregory Gurri-Glass
Introduction	255	(1)
General Precautions	255	(1)
Immunizations	256	(1)
Disease Risks	257	(1)
Common Diseases	257	(2)
Malaria	257	(1)
Diseases from Contaminated Water or Food	258	(1)
Skin Diseases	259	(1)
Diseases Involving Wild Mammals	259	(3)
Rabies	259	(1)
Arboviral Fevers	260	(1)
Hantavirus	260	(1)
Leishmaniasis	261	(1)
Histoplasmosis	262	(1)
Lyme Disease	262	(1)
Other Health Hazards	262	(2)
Hazards in Caves and Mines	262	(1)
Climatic Hazards	263	(1)
Venomous Animals	264	(1)
Conclusions	264	(1)
Appendix 3: Preservation of Voucher Specimens	265	(10)
Terry L. Yates
Clyde Jones
Joseph A. Cook
Introduction	265	(1)
Types of Specimen Preparations	265	(1)
Methods of Specimen Preparation	266	(9)
Record Keeping	266	(1)
Processing Procedures	266	(4)
Skin and Skeleton Preparation	270	(2)
Fluid-Preserved Specimens	272	(1)
Skeletons as Vouchers	273	(2)
Appendix 4: Tissues, Cell Suspensions, and Chromosomes	275	(4)
Terry L. Yates
Introduction	275	(1)
Chromosomes and Cell Suspensions	275	(2)
Frozen Tissues	277	(2)
Appendix 5: Sex, Age, and Reproductive Condition of Mammals	279	(12)
Thomas H. Kunz
Christen Wemmer
Virginia Hayssen
Introduction	279	(1)
Sex Determination	279	(3)
Genitalia	280	(1)
Body Size, Pelage, and Ornamentation	281	(1)
Scent Glands	282	(1)
Behavior	282	(1)
Age Estimation	282	(5)
Body Mass and Size	283	(1)
Tooth Characteristics	284	(1)
Cementum and Dentine Deposits	285	(1)
Periosteal Growth Lines	286	(1)
Epiphyseal Closure	286	(1)
Secondary Sexual Characteristics	286	(1)
Mass of the Lens in the Eye	286	(1)
Pelage or Color	287	(1)
Tail Collagen	287	(1)
Reproductive Condition	287	(4)
Males	287	(1)
Females	288	(2)
Hormone Assays	290	(1)
Appendix 6: Field Parasitology Techniques for Use with Mammals	291	(8)
Scott Lyell Gardner
Introduction	291	(1)
Procedures for Collecting Ectoparasites and Ectosymbionts	292	(1)
Procedures for Collecting Endoparasites and Endosymbionts	293	(4)
Recording Data	297	(1)
Materials	297	(2)
Equipment	297	(1)
Expendable Supplies and Reagents	298	(1)
Appendix 7: Methods for Marking Mammals	299	(12)
General Marking Techniques	299	(5)
Rasanayagam Rudran
Permanent Markers	299	(2)
Semipermanent Markers	301	(2)
Temporary Markers	303	(1)
Problems Related to Marking	303	(1)
Methods of Marking Bats	304	(7)
Thomas H. Kunz
Wing Bands	304	(2)
Thumb Bands	306	(1)
Ball-Chain Necklaces	306	(2)
Color Bands	308	(1)
Other Marking Methods	309	(1)
Conventions and Management of Banding Data	310	(1)
Precautions	310	(1)
Appendix 8: Recording Mammal Calls	311	(32)
William L. Gannon
Mercedes S. Foster
Introduction	311	(1)
Mammals as Noisemakers	311	(1)
A Need for Better Documentation	311	(1)
Equipment	312	(4)
Audio Tape Recorders	312	(3)
Microphones	315	(1)
Tape	316	(1)
Other Considerations	316	(1)
Field Gear Checklist	316	(1)
Recording Calls of Free-Ranging Mammals	316	(2)
Documenting Calls	316	(1)
Recording Techniques	317	(1)
Playback Techniques	318	(1)
Recording Calls from Captive Mammals	318	(1)
Handling Tapes	318	(7)
Call Analysis	325	(2)
Appendix 9: Vendors of Supplies and Equipment for Mammal Diversity Studies
Rasanayagam Rudran
F. Russell Cole
General Field and Laboratory Supplies	327	(1)
Maps	328	(1)
Global Positioning Systems	329	(1)
Capture Equipment	329	(1)
General	329	(1)
Nets	329	(1)
Dart Guns	330	(1)
Light Aircraft	330	(1)
Marking Supplies and Equipment	330	(2)
Split-Rings, Bands, Tags, and Ball-Chain Necklaces	330	(1)
Betalights	331	(1)
Cyalume	331	(1)
Punch-Marking and Tattooing Equipment	331	(1)
Fluorescent Powder and Hand-Held Ultraviolet Lights	332	(1)
Tapes	332	(1)
Chemicals and Drugs	332	(1)
Electronic Equipment	333	(4)
Radio Transmitters and Radiotelemetry Equipment	333	(1)
Ultrasonic Bat Detectors	334	(1)
Motion Detectors	335	(1)
Audio Equipment	335	(2)
Remote Cameras, Triggering Devices, and Film	337	(1)
Environmental Monitoring Equipment	337	(1)
Monitoring Equipment and Supplies	337	(1)
Data Loggers	338	(1)
Museum and Collecting Supplies	338	(3)
General Museum Supplies	338	(2)
Jars, Bottles, and Vials	340	(1)
Cryogenic Supplies	340	(1)
Specimen Storage Cases, Drums, and Tanks	341	(1)
Computer Equipment	341	(2)
Computer Hardware and Supplies	341	(1)
Computer Software	341	(2)
Appendix 10: Table of Random Numbers	343	(12)
Lee-Ann C. Hayek
Instructions for Use	343	(1)
Example	344	(2)
Table of Random Numbers	346	(9)
Literature Cited	355	(36)
Index	391	(14)
Addresses of Authors and Contributors	405