Methods of Educational and Social Science Research : An Integrated Approach

by Krathwohl, David R.

• ISBN13: 9781577663331
• ISBN10: 1577663330
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2004-01-01
• Publisher: Waveland Pr Inc

Table of Contents

Preface for the Instructor	xiii
Preface for the Student	xix
SECTION ONE The Nature of Research	1	(76)
CHAPTER 1 An Introduction to Two Contrasting Research Styles	3	(18)
Overview	3	(1)
Social and Behavioral Science: Important but Historically Young	4	(1)
Two Illustrative Studies	5	(1)
A Quantitative Experimental Study	6	(6)
A Qualitative Research Study	12	(7)
Summary	19	(2)
CHAPTER 2 The Variety of Research Methods	21	(17)
Overview	21	(1)
Contrasting the Two Approaches	22	(3)
A Continuum of Research Approaches	25	(3)
Categories of Research Studies	28	(4)
The Roles and Outcomes of Research	32	(2)
Comparison of Roles of Various Research Approaches	34	(1)
Summary	35	(3)
CHAPTER 3 From Findings to Knowledge	38	(24)
Overview	38	(1)
Introduction	39	(1)
An Illustration of the Journey from Findings to Knowledge	39	(5)
Important Characteristics of the Journey	44	(2)
Knowing Judgments in Everyday Life	46	(2)
Different Sources of Knowledge	48	(4)
The Norms of Knowledge Production	52	(4)
Ethics	56	(1)
Summary	57	(5)
CHAPTER 4 The Research Chain of Reasoning	62	(15)
Overview	62	(1)
Introduction	62	(1)
The Research Chain of Reasoning	63	(8)
The Chain of Reasoning and Qualitative Studies	71	(1)
Summary	72	(5)
SECTION TWO Foundational Research Skills	77	(48)
CHAPTER 5 Finding Research Problems	79	(21)
Overview	80	(1)
The Problem of the Problem	80	(1)
Problem Finding and Research Method	81	(2)
Criteria of a Good Problem	83	(3)
Success-Enhancing Problem-Finding Behaviors	86	(9)
Summary	95	(5)
CHAPTER 6 Finding Links to Past Research: The Literature Review	100	(25)
Overview	101	(1)
The Literature Search in Relation to Research Method	101	(1)
Goals of the Literature Search	102	(2)
The Variety of Information Sources Available	104	(1)
The Breadth of References Available	105	(4)
Computer Searches	109	(2)
Indexes and the Indexing Process	111	(7)
The Relation of Starting Points to Problem Development	118	(2)
Organizing the Search	120	(1)
Meta-Analyses	121	(1)
General Suggestions	121	(1)
Summary	122	(3)
SECTION THREE Foundational Research Concepts	125	(98)
CHAPTER 7 Causal Inference and Internal Validity	127	(31)
Overview	128	(1)
Association and Causation	129	(1)
Complications in the Concept of Cause	130	(4)
Patterns of Cause and Effect Relationships	134	(2)
Internal and External Validity as Evidence of Causation	136	(2)
Internal Validity (LP)	138	(10)
Relationship of Internal Validity (LP) to the Chain of Reasoning	148	(1)
Internal Validity (LP) and External Validity (GP) as Reduction in Uncertainty	149	(1)
Patterns of the "Basis for Sensing Attributes or Changes" Link That Facilitate Inferences of Causation	149	(3)
Can Causation Ever Be Inferred?	152	(1)
Summary	153	(5)
CHAPTER 8 Sampling, Representation, and External Validity	158	(29)
Overview	159	(1)
Introduction	159	(1)
Principles of Sampling	160	(3)
Probability and Nonprobability Sampling	163	(1)
Probability Sampling Procedures	163	(8)
Nonprobability Sampling	171	(3)
Generality, External Validity (GP), and Population Definition	174	(8)
Summary	182	(5)
CHAPTER 9 Research Criteria to Optimize and Constraints to Observe	187	(17)
Overview	188	(1)
Introduction	188	(2)
Criteria to be Optimized	190	(7)
Limits and Constraints	197	(3)
Summary	200	(4)
CHAPTER 10 Ethical Standards and Legal Constraints	204	(21)
Overview	204	(1)
Introduction	205	(1)
Legal and Institutional Protection of Human Subjects	206	(2)
Informed Consent	208	(3)
Codes of Ethics from Professional Associations	211	(2)
Collaboration with Research Subjects	213	(1)
Common Ethical Concerns	214	(4)
Researcher's Responsibility to the Institutional Review Board	218	(1)
Summary	219	(4)
Introduction to Sections Four Through Seven	223	(2)
SECTION FOUR The Continuum of Research Methods: Qualitative End	225	(124)
CHAPTER 11 Qualitative Research Methods	227	(20)
Overview	227	(1)
Introduction	228	(1)
Uses and Advantages of Qualitative Procedures	229	(4)
The Variety of Approaches to Qualitative Methods	233	(2)
Qualitative Orientation as a Point of View	235	(3)
Finding a Problem	238	(2)
Ways of Generating Qualitative Data	240	(1)
Overview of the Qualitative Process	241	(2)
Summary	243	(4)
CHAPTER 12 Fieldwork and Observation	247	(37)
Overview	248	(1)
Ways of Observing	249	(3)
Initial Steps	252	(7)
Data Gathering	259	(15)
Data Validity	274	(3)
Leaving the Field	277	(1)
Ethics	277	(2)
Tips on Observation	279	(1)
Summary	280	(4)
CHAPTER 13 Interviewing	284	(18)
Overview	285	(1)
Introduction	285	(2)
Structuring Interviewer and Respondent Roles	287	(2)
The Focused Interview	289	(1)
Using Rapport Builders	290	(2)
The Nondirective Approach	292	(2)
Choosing Interviewees: Sampling Patterns	294	(1)
Multiple Interviewers and Respondents	294	(2)
Interviewer Characteristics Affecting Responses	296	(2)
Tips on Interviewing and Hallmarks of an Interview	298	(1)
Summary	298	(4)
CHAPTER 14 Qualitative Data Analysis	302	(27)
Overview	303	(1)
Introduction	304	(1)
Early Steps in Analysis	305	(2)
The Nature of Coding	307	(7)
Drawing and Verifying Conclusions	314	(3)
Threats to the Validity of Interpretation: Rival Explanations	317	(3)
Use of Computers in Analysis	320	(3)
Fitting the Analysis Process to the Study	323	(1)
Tips on Analysis	324	(1)
Summary	325	(4)
CHAPTER 15 Conclusions, Reporting, and Quality Considerations in Qualitative Research	329	(20)
Overview	330	(1)
Introduction	330	(1)
Report Format and Organization	331	(5)
Quality Considerations in Qualitative Research	336	(8)
Hallmarks of Qualitative Research	344	(2)
Summary	346	(3)
SECTION FIVE The Continuum of Research Methods: Qualitative Quantitative Middle	349	(36)
CHAPTER 16 Survey Research and Questionnaires	351	(34)
Overview	351	(1)
Introduction	352	(1)
Survey Purposes and Planning	352	(6)
Interviews	358	(3)
Questionnaires	361	(9)
E-mail Questionnaires	370	(1)
Coding of Interview and Questionnaire Responses	370	(1)
Analysis of Interview and Questionnaire Data	371	(1)
Improving Questions, Questionnaires, and
Letters of Transmittal	372	(5)
Additional Hallmarks of Survey Research	377	(1)
A Summary Comparison of Four Survey Data Collecting Modes	377	(4)
Summary	381	(4)
SECTION SIX The Continuum of Research Methods: Quantitative End	385	(184)
CHAPTER 17 The Numeric Description of Data: Descriptive Statistics	387	(34)
Overview	388	(1)
Introduction	388	(3)
Representations of Groups of Numbers (Data Sets)	391	(5)
Descriptive Statistics	396	(18)
Appropriate Interpretation of Statistics	414	(3)
Exploring with Statistics	417	(1)
Summary	417	(4)
CHAPTER 18 Measurement, Testing, and Observation	421	(34)
Overview	422	(1)
Introduction	423	(3)
Evidence of Construct Validity	426	(6)
The Specificity of Validity	432	(3)
Reliability of Measures	435	(5)
Improvement of Validity and/or Reliability
Through Item Analysis	440	(2)
Objectivity of Measures	442	(2)
Measurement Trade-Offs	444	(1)
Advances in Measurement	444	(1)
Locating Existing Measures	445	(1)
Summary	446	(4)
Chapter Appendix	450	(5)
CHAPTER 19 The Nature and Logic of Inferential Statistics	455	(43)
Overview	455	(1)
Prologue	456	(2)
Introduction	458	(2)
Estimation	460	(4)
The Logic of Confidence Intervals	464	(1)
The Logic of Hypothesis Testing	465	(11)
The t Test of Differences Between Means	476	(2)
Sensitivity, Precision, and Statistical Power	478	(6)
The Level of Significance to Report	484	(1)
Statistical and Practical Significance	485	(1)
Proof of a Proposition Versus Its Escaping Disconfirmation	485	(1)
Violation of the Assumptions of Statistical Tests	486	(2)
Two Additional Common Inferential Statistics	488	(4)
Use of Computerized Statistical Programs	492	(1)
Possible Future Directions of Inferential Statistics	492	(1)
Summary	493	(5)
CHAPTER 20 Experimental Methods and Experimental Design	498	(55)
Overview	498	(1)
Introduction	499	(4)
The Art of Experimental Design	503	(3)
General Methods of Control	506	(3)
How Simple Experimental Designs Control Rival Explanations	509	(2)
Common Rival Explanations, and Threats to Validity	511	(13)
A Summary of Protection Offered by Six Simple Designs	524	(2)
A Summary of Common Control Problems and Their Elimination	526	(5)
Additional Designs	531	(4)
Factorial Designs	535	(1)
Causal Comparison, Ex Post Facto Studies, and After-the-Fact Natural Experiments	536	(4)
Treatment Definition and Fidelity	540	(5)
Hallmarks of Experimental Design and Tips on Constructing Them	545	(2)
Summary	547	(6)
CHAPTER 21 Meta-Analysis-Synthesis of Findings	553	(16)
Overview	553	(1)
Introduction	554	(4)
Considerations in Meta-Analytic Methodology	558	(2)
Meta-Analysis Methods	560	(2)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Quantitative Literature Summaries	562	(2)
Hallmarks of Meta-Analytic Studies and Tips for Doing Them	564	(1)
Summary	565	(4)
SECTION SEVEN Examples of Fields Applying Basic Methods	569	(46)
CHAPTER 22 Historical Research	571	(16)
Overview	571	(1)
Introduction	572	(1)
Methods of the Historian	573	(1)
History as Selective Interpretation	573	(3)
Steps in a Historical Study	576	(7)
Hallmarks of Historical Studies	583	(1)
Summary	584	(3)
CHAPTER 23 Evaluation Studies and Action Research	587	(28)
Overview	587	(1)
Introduction	588	(4)
Alternative Evaluation Approaches	592	(8)
Action Research	600	(3)
Special Problems of Doing Evaluations	603	(5)
Evaluation Standards: Protection for Evaluators and Clients	608	(1)
Hallmarks and Tips for Evaluation Studies	609	(1)
Tips for Doing Action Research	610	(1)
Summary	611	(4)
SECTION EIGHT The Larger Context of Research	615	(34)
CHAPTER 24 Optimizing Research Effectiveness Through Multiple Methods	617	(15)
Overview	618	(1)
Introduction	618	(1)
Ways Multiple Methods Enhance Research	619	(4)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Various Data Gathering Methods	623	(1)
The Power of Replication	623	(4)
Summary	627	(5)
CHAPTER 25 The Macrosystem of Educational and Social Science Research	632	(17)
Overview	632	(1)
Introduction	633	(1)
Does Science Function as Intended at the Individual Level?	633	(3)
Does Science Function as Intended at the Peer Level?	636	(3)
The Potential of the Internet	639	(1)
Does Science Function as Intended at the Societal Level?	640	(5)
What Are We to Think, Then, of Social Science Research?	645	(4)
APPENDIX Writing a Research Proposal	649	(30)
Overview	649	(1)
Definition of a Research Proposal	650	(2)
Statement of the Problem	652	(7)
Design and Procedure: General Considerations	659	(5)
Subsections Describing Design and Procedure	664	(7)
A Final Check and Review	671	(1)
Qualitative Method and Other Emergent Problem Proposals	672	(2)
Writing Formats	674	(5)
Glossary	679	(16)
References	695	(26)
Name Index	721
Subject Index	72