A Multilevel Approach to the Study of Motor Control and Learning

by Rose, Debra J.; Christina, Robert W.

• ISBN13: 9780805360318
• ISBN10: 080536031X
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-05-03
• Publisher: Pearson

Summary

This up-to-date book provides a comprehensive introduction to the principles of motor control and motor learning. The authors integrate knowledge from the fields of cognitive psychology and neuroscience to provide readers with a more complete understanding of the multilevel processes that contribute to the acquisition and control of movement skills. Each section of the book introduces the most important theoretical models in each particular area, followed by theoretical principles and illustrations with practical examples drawn from movement, skill, and clinical settings. The breadth of the practical applications will appeal to readers preparing to enter professions that require a strong knowledge of motor control and learning principles.Movement, skill, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, transfer of motor learning, contemporary motor control theories, measurement techniques, application of theory, real-life aspects of motor control and learning.For all readers interested in issues relating to motor learning and control.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
SECTION ONE: MOTOR CONTROL
Introduction to Motor Control	1	(30)
Defining Motor Control	2	(2)
Open- and Closed-Loop Motor Control	4	(3)
Open-Loop Motor Control	4	(2)
Use of Open- versus Closed-Loop Motor Control	6	(1)
Theories of Motor Control	7	(14)
Reflex Theories	7	(2)
Hierarchical Theories	9	(5)
Dynamical and Ecological Approaches	14	(5)
Does One Theoretical Approach Better Explain How Movements Are Controlled?	19	(2)
Characteristics of Human Action	21	(8)
Flexibility	21	(1)
Uniqueness	22	(1)
Consistency and Modifiability	23	(1)
Does One Theory of Motor Control Better Explain the Characteristics of Skilled Actions?	23	(3)
The Degrees-of-Freedom Problem	26	(3)
Summary	29	(1)
Important Terminology	29	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	30	(1)
Test Your Understanding	30	(1)
Scientific Measurement and Motor Control	31	(28)
Psychological Measures	32	(19)
Response Outcome Measures	32	(9)
Response Process Measures	41	(10)
Neurological Measures	51	(4)
Intracellular Recordings	52	(1)
Lesions and Ablations	52	(1)
Brain Mapping and Scanning Techniques	53	(2)
Summary	55	(1)
Important Terminology	56	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	57	(1)
Test Your Understanding	57	(1)
Practical Activities	58	(1)
Somatosensory Contributions to Action	59	(34)
General Properties of Sensory Receptors and Affernet Pathways	60	(3)
Adequate Stimulation	60	(1)
Intensity Coding	61	(1)
Sensory Adaptation	61	(2)
The Transmission and Integration of Sensory Input	63	(2)
Somatosensation	65	(7)
Cutaneous Receptors	66	(1)
Proprioceptors	67	(5)
Transmission of Somatosensory Input	72	(5)
Dorsal Column System	72	(2)
Spinocerebellar Tract	74	(1)
Anterolateral System	74	(2)
Somatosensory Cortex	76	(1)
Disorders of the Somatosensory System	77	(2)
Application of Theory	79	(1)
The Conscious Sensation of Movement	80	(3)
Afferent Sources of Kinesthesis	80	(3)
The Conscious Sensation of Muscular Effort	83	(1)
Practical Applications	84	(2)
The Role of Feedback in Controlling Actions	86	(2)
Knowledge of Body Position	86	(1)
Planning and Modification of Action Plans	86	(1)
Learning or Relearning Movements	87	(1)
Errors in Performance	88	(1)
Summary	88	(1)
Important Terminology	89	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	90	(1)
Test Your Understanding	90	(1)
Practical Activities	91	(2)
Visual and Vestibular System Contributions to Action	93	(34)
Neuromotor Processing of Vision	94	(5)
Reception of Visual Input	94	(2)
Transmission to the Brain	96	(1)
Topographic Organization in the Visual System	97	(1)
The Control of Eye Movements	97	(2)
Two Visual Systems?	99	(1)
Two Visual Systems and Motor Control	99	(1)
Psychological Studies of Perception and Action	100	(3)
Contrasting Theories of Visual Perception	100	(3)
Visual Guidance of Action	103	(10)
Reaching and Grasping	103	(1)
Standing Balance	104	(1)
Locomotion	105	(2)
Jumping from Different Heights	107	(1)
Catching Objects	107	(1)
Hitting Objects	108	(1)
Time-to-Contact Information	108	(3)
Visual Dominance	111	(1)
Role of Vision in Performance of Sport Skills	111	(2)
Disorders of the Visual System	113	(1)
Vestibular System	114	(7)
Anatomy of the Vestibular System	114	(2)
Peripheral Sensory Reception	116	(1)
Ascending Pathways	117	(1)
Descending Pathways	118	(1)
Vestibular-Visual Interactions	119	(1)
Adaptability of the Vestibular Ocular Reflex	119	(1)
Vestibular Contributions to Equilibrium	120	(1)
Disorders of the Vestibular System	121	(2)
Summary	123	(1)
Important Terminology	124	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	125	(1)
Test Your Understanding	125	(1)
Practical Activities	126	(1)
Developing and Executing a Plan of Action	127	(39)
Planning the Action	128	(2)
Making the Decision to Act	128	(1)
Developing a General Plan	129	(1)
Adding Details to the Plan	129	(1)
Executing the Plan of Action	130	(1)
The Neuromotor Level of Analysis	130	(14)
The Limbic System	132	(1)
The Association Cortex	133	(1)
The Projection System	133	(7)
Motor Pathways	140	(4)
The Spinal System	144	(1)
Moment-to-Moment Control	144	(14)
Types of Motoneurons	145	(1)
Muscle Activation and Force Production	146	(4)
Musculoskeletal Contributions to Force	150	(1)
Subconscious Control of Movement	151	(6)
Solving the Motor Problem	157	(1)
Constraints on Action	158	(4)
Intrinsic Capabilities of the Performer	158	(1)
Task-Related Constraints	159	(2)
Environmental Constraints	161	(1)
Summary	162	(1)
Important Terminology	163	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	163	(1)
Test Your Understanding	163	(1)
Practical Activities	164	(2)
SECTION TWO: MOTOR LEARNING
Introduction to Motor Learning	166	(28)
Defining Motor Learning	167	(4)
Motor Learning Is Inferred from Performance	168	(1)
Performance Is Not a Perfect Index of Motor Learning	168	(1)
Motor Learning Produces Reliable Performance Changes	169	(1)
Motor Learning May Not Lead to Performance Improvement	170	(1)
Motor Learning and Instruction, Practice, and/or Experience	171	(1)
Theories of Motor Learning	171	(7)
Adams' Closed-Loop Theory	172	(1)
Schmidt's Schema Theory	172	(3)
Ecological Theories of Perception and Action	175	(1)
How Does Motor Learning Really Occur?	176	(2)
Stages of Motor Learning	178	(6)
Fitts' Three Stages of Learning	178	(1)
A Neo-Bernsteinian Perspective	179	(2)
Gentile's Two-Stage Model	181	(2)
Benefits of the Three Models of Motor Learning	183	(1)
Readiness for Motor Learning	184	(6)
Developmental Qualities	185	(1)
Learning Styles	186	(3)
Motivational Qualities	189	(1)
Summary	190	(2)
Important Terminology	192	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	192	(1)
Test Your Understanding	193	(1)
How Motor Learning Is Studied	194	(29)
Approaches to the Study of Motor Learning	195	(5)
Traditional Approach	195	(2)
Method versus Problem-Oriented Approach	197	(1)
Doctrine of Disproof Approach	198	(1)
Cooperative Approach between Basic and Applied Research	199	(1)
Assessing Motor Learning in Acquisition	200	(9)
Performance Curves	200	(6)
Setting a Criterion of Mastery	206	(1)
Over-Learning	207	(1)
Level of Automaticity	207	(1)
Limitations of Assessing Motor Learning in Acquisition	208	(1)
Assessing Motor Learning in Post-Acquisition	209	(9)
Retention Tests	209	(1)
Maintaining the Learning-Retention Distinction	210	(1)
Transfer Tests	210	(7)
Development of a Knowledge Base	217	(1)
Measuring Learning-Related Changes in Perception and Cognition	218	(1)
Expert-Novice Comparisons	212	(2)
Visual Occlusion Techniques	214	(1)
Eye Movement Recordings	215	(1)
Pattern Recognition and Memory Recall Tests	215	(2)
Development of a Knowledge Base	217	(1)
Measuring Learning-Related Changes in the Dynamics of Action	218	(1)
Measures of Metabolic and Mechanical Efficacy	218	(1)
Identifying the Learning-Related Changes in Performance	219	(1)
Summary	220	(1)
Important Terminology	221	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	221	(1)
Test Your Understanding	221	(2)
Setting the Stage for Motor Learning	223	(29)
Motivating People to Learn Motor Skills	224	(4)
Goal Setting	225	(1)
Praise and Criticism	226	(1)
Success and Failure	227	(1)
Self-Esteem	227	(1)
Competition and Cooperation	228	(1)
Introducing and Explaining Movement Skills	228	(5)
Setting the Stage for the Introduction	228	(1)
Delivering the Introduction	229	(1)
Delivering the Explanation	229	(1)
Select the Best Words to Use in the Explanation	229	(1)
Where to Direct the Learners' Focus of Attention	230	(1)
Relate What Is Being Taught to the Learners' Background	231	(2)
Demonstrating the Skill to Be Learned	233	(11)
Variables That Influence the Effectiveness of Modeling	234	(8)
Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Model	242	(1)
Guidelines for Using Modeling	243	(1)
Theoretical Explanations of the Modeling Effect	244	(1)
Social Learning Theory	244	(1)
Direct Perception Approach	245	(1)
Discovery Learning	245	(3)
Applying the Principles of Discovery Learning	247	(1)
Summary	248	(1)
Important Terminology	249	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	250	(1)
Test Your Understanding	250	(2)
Organizing the Practice Environment	252	(39)
Amount of Practice	253	(3)
Level of Original Learning	254	(1)
Level of Over-Learning	255	(1)
Structuring the Practice Session	256	(8)
Specificity of Practice	256	(6)
Variability of Practice	262	(2)
Organizing the Practice Schedule	264	(6)
Introducing Interference	264	(1)
Influencing Factors	265	(5)
Theoretical Accounts of the Contextual Interference Effect	270	(2)
Elaboration View	271	(1)
Action-Plan Reconstruction View	271	(1)
Spacing/Distribution of Practice	272	(2)
Techniques for Enhancing the Effectiveness of Practice	274	(4)
Guidance Techniques	274	(1)
Whole-Task versus Part-Task Practice Strategies	275	(2)
Part-Task Practice Methods	277	(1)
Attentional Cuing and Whole Practice	277	(1)
Mental Practice	278	(8)
Mental Practice Conditions	279	(3)
Variables Limiting Our Understanding of Mental Practice Effects	282	(2)
Physiological Basis of Mental Practice	284	(2)
Summary	286	(2)
Important Terminology	288	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	288	(1)
Test Your Understanding	289	(1)
Practical Activities	290	(1)
Augmented Feedback and Motor Learning	291	(30)
Functions of Feedback in Motor Learning	293	(4)
Feedback as Information to Correct Performance Errors	293	(1)
Feedback as Positive Reinforcement to Strengthen Correct Performance	294	(1)
Feedback as Negative Reinforcement to Strengthen Correct Performance	295	(1)
Feedback as Punishment to Suppress Errors	296	(1)
Feedback as Motivation for Motor Learning	296	(1)
Form of the Feedback	297	(6)
Kinematic and Kinetic Visual Displays	298	(1)
Videotape Feedback	299	(2)
Augmented Sensory Feedback: Biofeedback	301	(2)
Precision of Augmented Feedback	303	(1)
Frequency of Augmented Feedback	303	(10)
Fading-Frequency Schedules of Knowledge of Results	305	(1)
Bandwidth Knowledge of Results	305	(2)
Reversed Bandwith Knowledge of Results	307	(1)
Summary Knowledge of Results	307	(2)
Average Knowledge of Results	309	(3)
Self-Regulated (Controlled) Augmented Feedback Schedules	312	(1)
Theoretical Explanations of the Frequency Effect	313	(1)
Guidance Hypothesis	313	(1)
Consistency Hypothesis	313	(1)
The Timing of Knowledge of Results	314	(2)
Summary	316	(2)
Important Terminology	318	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	319	(1)
Test Your Understanding	319	(2)
Memory and Forgetting	321	(36)
Contemporary Concepts of Memory	322	(6)
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Multistore Model	323	(2)
Levels-of-Processing Framework	325	(1)
Neurobiology of Memory	326	(2)
Types of Memory	328	(1)
Short-Term and Long-Term Memory	328	(1)
Declarative and Procedural Memory	328	(1)
The Relationship Between Learning and Memory	329	(1)
How Memory and Forgetting Are Studied	329	(12)
What Retention Test Performance Tells Us	330	(2)
Example of How the Retention of Motor Learning Is Studied	332	(2)
Controlling for Variables That Produce Contaminating Effects	334	(4)
Retention Test Measures	338	(3)
Theories of Forgetting	341	(4)
Trace Decay Theory	341	(1)
Interference Theory	342	(2)
Retrieval Theory	344	(1)
Which Theory Is Correct?	345	(1)
Factors That Influence Memory Skill	345	(7)
Characteristics of the Movement Skill	346	(4)
The Level of Original Learning	350	(1)
The Learner	350	(2)
Disorders of Memory	352	(1)
Summary	353	(1)
Important Terminology	354	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	355	(1)
Test Your Understanding	355	(2)
Transfer of Motor Learning	357	(34)
Transfer of Motor Learning Depends on Similarity	358	(12)
Direction and Amount of Transfer	359	(3)
Extent of Transfer	362	(5)
Additional Factors Influencing Transfer	367	(3)
Transfer of General Factors	370	(2)
Transfer of Principles	370	(1)
Learning to Learn	371	(1)
Two-Factor Theory	371	(1)
Types of Transfer	372	(8)
Vertical Transfer	372	(2)
Lateral Transfer	374	(5)
Near and Far Transfer	379	(1)
How Transfer Is Studied	380	(6)
Experimental Design to Study Proactive Transfer	380	(2)
Experimental Design to Study Retroactive Transfer	382	(1)
Measuring Transfer	383	(3)
Summary	386	(2)
Important Terminology	388	(1)
Suggested Further Reading	388	(1)
Test Your Understanding	389	(2)
References	391	(30)
Credits	421	(2)
Author Index	423	(10)
Subject Index	433