Nitride Semiconductors and Devices

by Morkoc, Hadis

• ISBN13: 9783540640387
• ISBN10: 354064038X
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1999-11-01
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

This is a unique book devoted to the important class of nitride semico nductors and devices. Numerous tables and figures detailing properties and performance devices are compiled. Structural, electrical and opti cal properties of nitrides and substrates on which they are deposited, band structures of nitrides, optical processes, deposition and fabric ation technologies (contacts), dopant incorporation and analyses, pn-j unctions, light-emitting diodes, and blue lasers are treated succinctl y. Attention is paid to both technological issues and fundamentals.

Table of Contents

Foreword. A View of the Past, and a Look into the Future by a Pioneer	xv
Jacques I. Pankove
Introduction	1	(7)
General Properties of Nitrides	8	(37)
Crystal Structure of Nitrides	8	(3)
Gallium Nitride	11	(6)
Chemical Properties of GaN	13	(1)
Thermal and Mechanical Properties of GaN	14	(3)
Aluminum Nitride	17	(6)
Thermal and Chemical Properties of AlN	17	(2)
Mechanical Properties of AlN	19	(1)
Electrical Properties of AlN	20	(1)
Optical Properties of AlN	21	(2)
Indium Nitride	23	(3)
Crystal Structure of InN	24	(1)
Mechanical and Thermal Properties of InN	25	(1)
Electrical Properties of InN	25	(1)
Optical Properties of InN	26	(1)
Ternary and Quarternary Alloys	26	(5)
AlGaN Alloy	27	(2)
InGaN Alloy	29	(2)
InAlN Alloy	31	(1)
Substrates for Nitride Epitaxy	31	(14)
Appendix: Fundamental Data for Nitride Systems	39	(6)
Electronic Band Structure of Bulk and QW Nitrides	45	(38)
Band-Structure Calculations	45	(6)
Effect of Strain on the Band Structure of GaN	51	(1)
k.p Theory and the Quasi-Cubic Model	52	(2)
Quasi-Cubic Approximation	54	(3)
Confined States	57	(4)
Conduction Band	61	(2)
Valence Band	63	(3)
Exciton Binding Energy in Quantum Wells	66	(2)
Polarization Effects	68	(15)
Appendix	80	(3)
Growth of Nitride Semiconductors	83	(66)
Bulk Growth	84	(3)
Substrates Used	87	(2)
Conventional Substrates	88	(1)
Compliant Substrates	88	(1)
Van der Waals Substrates	89	(1)
Substrate Preparation	89	(5)
Substrate Temperature	94	(1)
Epitaxial Relationship to Sapphire	95	(3)
Growth by Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy (HVPE)	98	(1)
Growth by OMPVE (MOCVD)	99	(13)
Sources	100	(2)
Buffer Layers	102	(7)
Lateral Growth	109	(3)
Growth on Spinel (MgAl2O4)	112	(1)
Molecular Beam Epitaxy	112	(15)
MBE Growth Systems	113	(1)
Plasma-Enhanced MBE	114	(3)
Reactive-Ion MBE	117	(1)
Reactive MBE	118	(7)
Modeling of the MBE-Like Growth	125	(2)
Growth on 6H-SiC (0001)	127	(2)
Growth on ZnO	129	(7)
Growth on GaN	136	(1)
Growth of p-Type GaN	137	(2)
Growth of n-Type InN	139	(1)
Growth of n-Type Ternary and Quaternary Alloys	139	(1)
Growth of p-Type Ternary and Quarternary Alloys	140	(1)
Critical Thickness	141	(8)
Defects and Doping	149	(42)
Dislocations	150	(1)
Stacking-Fault Defects	151	(2)
Point Defects and Autodoping	153	(12)
Vacancies, Antisites and Interstitials	154	(6)
Role of Impurities and Hydrogen	160	(3)
Optical Signature of Defects in GaN	163	(2)
Intentional Doping	165	(21)
n-Type Doping with Silicon, Germanium and Selenium	165	(2)
p-Type Doping	167	(1)
Doping with Mg	168	(11)
Optical Manifestation of Group-II Dopant-Induced Defects in GaN	179	(3)
Doping with Beryllium	182	(1)
Doping with Mercury	182	(1)
Doping with Carbon	183	(1)
Doping with Zinc	184	(1)
Doping with Calcium	184	(1)
Doping with Rare Earths	184	(1)
Ion Implantation and Diffusion	185	(1)
Defect Analysis by Deep-Level Transient Spectroscopy	186	(4)
Summary	190	(1)
Metal Contacts to GaN	191	(25)
A Primer for Semiconductor-Metal Contacts	192	(4)
Current Flow in Metal-Semiconductor Junctions	196	(6)
The Regime Dominated by Thermionic Emission	197	(1)
Thermionic Field-Emission Regime	198	(1)
Direct Tunneling Regime	199	(1)
Leakage Current	200	(1)
The Case of a Forward-Biased p-n Junction	200	(2)
Resistance of an Ohmic Contact	202	(4)
Specific Contact Resistivity	203	(1)
Semiconductor Resistance	204	(2)
Determination of the Contact Resistivity	206	(1)
Ohmic Contacts to GaN	207	(6)
Non-Alloyed Ohmic Contacts	208	(1)
Alloyed Ohmic Contacts	209	(1)
Multi-Layer Ohmic Contacts	209	(4)
Structural Analysis	213	(2)
Observations	215	(1)
Determination of Impurity and Carrier Concentrations	216	(17)
Impurity Binding Energy	216	(1)
Conductivity Type: Hot Probe and Hall Measurements	217	(2)
Density of States and Carrier Concentration	219	(4)
Electron and Hole Concentrations	223	(1)
Temperature Dependence of the Hole Concentration	224	(3)
Temperature Dependence of the Electron Concentration	227	(2)
Multiple Occupancy of the Valence Bands	229	(4)
Appendix: Fermi Integral	232	(1)
Carrier Transport	233	(34)
Ionized Impurity Scattering	235	(1)
Polar-Optical Phonon Scattering	236	(3)
Piezoelectric Scattering	239	(1)
Acoustic Phonon Scattering	239	(3)
Alloy Scattering	242	(6)
The Hall Factor	248	(1)
Other Methods Used for Calculating the Mobility in n-GaN	249	(2)
Measured vis. a vis. Calculated Mobilities in GaN	251	(6)
Transport in 2D n-Type GaN	257	(1)
Transport in p-Type GaN and AlGaN	258	(2)
Carrier Transport in InN	260	(2)
Carrier Transport in AlN	262	(4)
Transport in Unintensionally-Doped and High-Resistivity GaN	263	(3)
Observation	266	(1)
The p-n Junction	267	(28)
Heterojunctions	267	(1)
Band Discontinuities	268	(7)
GaN/AlN Heterostructures	270	(1)
GaN/InN and AlN/InN	271	(4)
Electrostatic Characteristics of p-n Heterojunctions	275	(3)
Current-Voltage Characteristics on p-n Junctions	278	(10)
Generation-Recombination Current	279	(3)
Surface Effects	282	(2)
Diode Current Under Reverse Bias	284	(1)
Effect of the Electric Field on the Generation Current	284	(1)
Diffusion Current	285	(2)
Diode Current Under Forward Bias	287	(1)
Calculation and Experimental I-V Characteristics of GaN Based p-n Junctions	288	(6)
Concluding Remarks	294	(1)
Optical Processes in Nitride Semiconductors	295	(45)
Absorption and Emission	296	(4)
Band-to-Band Transitions	300	(3)
Excitonuc Transitions	302	(1)
Optical Transitions in GaN	303	(28)
Excitonic Transitions in GaN	303	(1)
Free Excitons	303	(14)
Bound Excitons	317	(1)
Exciton Recombination Dynamics	318	(4)
High Injection Levels	322	(1)
Free-to-Bound Transitions	322	(1)
Donor-Acceptor Transitions	323	(3)
Defect-Related Transitions	326	(1)
Yellow Luminescence	326	(3)
Group-II Element Related Transitions	329	(2)
Optical Properties of Nitride Heterostructures	331	(9)
GaN/AlGaN Heterostructures	332	(4)
InGaN/GaN and InGaN/InGaN Heterostructures	336	(4)
Light-Emitting Diodes	340	(39)
Current-Conduction Mechanism in LED-Like Structures	341	(3)
Optical Output Power	344	(1)
Losses and Efficiency	345	(5)
Visible-Light Emitting Diodes	350	(2)
Nitride LED Performance	352	(8)
On the Nature of Light Emission in Nitride-Based LEDs	360	(10)
Pressure Dependence of Spectra	360	(3)
Current and Temperature Dependence of Spectra	363	(3)
I-V Characteristics of Nitride LEDs	366	(4)
LED Degradation	370	(3)
Luminescence Conversion and White-Light Generation With Nitride LEDs	373	(3)
Organic LEDs	376	(3)
Semiconductor Lasers	379	(82)
A Primer to the Principles of Lasers	381	(1)
Fundamentals of Semiconductor Lasers	382	(7)
Waveguiding	389	(16)
Analytical Solution to the Waveguide Problem	390	(4)
Numerical Solution of the Waveguide Problem	394	(8)
Far-Field Pattern	402	(3)
Loss and Threshold	405	(1)
Optical Gain	406	(7)
Gain in Bulk Layers	407	(3)
Gain in Quantum Wells	410	(3)
Coulombic Effects	413	(4)
Gain Calculations for GaN	417	(22)
Optical Gain in Bulk GaN	418	(1)
Gain in GaN Quantum Wells	419	(1)
Gain Calculations in Wz GaN QW Without Strain	419	(1)
Gain Calculations in WZ QW With Strain	420	(3)
Gain in ZB QW Structures Without Strain	423	(1)
Gain in ZB QW Structures with Strain	424	(1)
Pathways Through Excitons and Localized States	425	(6)
Measurement of Gain in Nitrides	431	(1)
Gain Measurement via Optical Pumping	431	(6)
Gain Measurement via Electrical Injection (Pump) and an Optical Probe	437	(2)
Threshold Current	439	(1)
Analysis of Injection Lasers with Simplifying Assumptions	440	(2)
Recombination Lifetime	442	(6)
Quantum Efficiency	448	(2)
Gain Spectra of InGaN Injection Lasers	450	(6)
Observations	456	(1)
A Succinct Review of the Laser Evolution in Nitrides	457	(4)
References	461	(24)
Subject Index	485