Optoelectronic Devices

by Piprek, Joachim

• ISBN13: 9780387226590
• ISBN10: 0387226591
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-01-20
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

Optoelectronic devices transform electrical signals into optical signals (and vice versa) by utilizing the interaction of electrons and light. Advanced software tools for the design and analysis of such devices have been developed in recent years. However, the large variety of materials, devices, physical mechanisms, and modeling approaches often makes it difficult to select appropriate theoretical models or software packages. This book presents a review of devices and advanced simulation approaches written by leading researchers and software developers. It is intended for scientists and device engineers in optoelectronics who are interested in using advanced software tools. Each chapter includes the theoretical background as well as practical simulation results that help the reader to better understand internal device physics. Real-world devices such as edge-emitting or surface-emitting laser diodes, light-emitting diodes, solar cells, photodetectors, and integrated optoelectronic circuits are investigated. The software packages described in the book are available to the public, on a commercial or noncommercial basis, so that the interested reader is quickly able to perform similar simulations.

Table of Contents

1 Gain and Absorption: Many-Body Effects
S.W. Koch, J. Hader, A. Thränhardt, J.V. Moloney	1	(26)
1.1 Introduction	1	(1)
1.2 Theory	2	(5)
1.3 Simplified Models	7	(11)
1.3.1 General Features; Single-Particle Gain and Absorption	7	(3)
1.3.2 Fair Approximations	10	(3)
1.3.3 Poor Approximations	13	(5)
1.4 Commercial Applications	18	(5)
1.4.1 Gain Tables	18	(1)
1.4.2 On-Wafer Device Testing	19	(4)
1.5 Carrier Dynamics	23	(1)
References	24	(3)
2 Fabry-Perot Lasers: Temperature and Many-Body Effects
B. Grote, E.K. Heller, R. Scarmozzino, J. Hader, J.V. Moloney, S.W. Koch	27	(36)
2.1 Introduction	27	(4)
2.2 Theory	31	(10)
2.2.1 Transport	31	(7)
2.2.2 Optics	38	(1)
2.2.3 Gain	39	(2)
2.3 Temperature Sensitivity of InGaAsP Semiconductor Multi-Quantum Well Lasers	41	(17)
2.3.1 Laser Structure	42	(1)
2.3.2 Sample Characterization	42	(2)
2.3.3 Gain Spectra	44	(3)
2.3.4 Light-Current Characteristics and Model Calibration	47	(6)
2.3.5 Self-Heating	53	(5)
2.4 Summary	58	(1)
References	59	(4)
3 Fabry-Perot Lasers: Thermodynamics-Based Modeling
U. Bandelow, H. Gajewski, and R. Hünlich	63	(24)
3.1 Introduction	63	(1)
3.2 Basic Equations	64	(3)
3.2.1 Poisson Equation	64	(1)
3.2.2 Transport Equations	64	(1)
3.2.3 State Equations	65	(1)
3.2.4 Optics	65	(2)
3.3 Heating	67	(7)
3.3.1 Free Energy, Entropy, Energy	67	(2)
3.3.2 Current Densities	69	(1)
3.3.3 Heat Equation	70	(2)
3.3.4 Entropy Balance	72	(2)
3.4 Boundary Conditions	74	(1)
3.5 Discretization	75	(3)
3.5.1 Time Discretization	75	(1)
3.5.2 Space Discretization	75	(1)
3.5.3 Discretization of the Currents	76	(2)
3.6 Solution of the Discretized Equations	78	(1)
3.6.1 Decoupling, Linearization	78	(1)
3.6.2 Solution of Linear Algebraic Equations	78	(1)
3.7 Example	78	(5)
3.7.1 Stationary Characteristics	79	(3)
3.7.2 Modulation Response	82	(1)
3.8 Conclusion	83	(1)
A Temperature Dependence of Model Parameters	84	(1)
References	85	(2)
4 Distributed Feedback Lasers: Quasi-3D Static and Dynamic Model
X. Li	87	(34)
4.1 Introduction	87	(2)
4.2 Governing Equations	89	(9)
4.2.1 Optical Wave Equations	89	(4)
4.2.2 Carrier Transport Equations	93	(2)
4.2.3 Optical Gain Model	95	(2)
4.2.4 Thermal Diffusion Equation	97	(1)
4.3 Implementation	98	(8)
4.3.1 General Approach	98	(5)
4.3.2 Solver for Optical Wave Equations	103	(1)
4.3.3 Solver for Carrier Transport Equations	104	(1)
4.3.4 Solver for Optical Gain Model	104	(1)
4.3.5 Solver for Thermal Diffusion Equation	104	(2)
4.4 Model Validation	106	(1)
4.5 Model Comparison and Application	107	(10)
4.5.1 Comparison among Different Models	107	(1)
4.5.2 1.3-μm InAIGaAs/InP BH SL-MQW DFB Laser Diode	108	(2)
4.5.3 1.55-μm InGaAsP/InP RW SL-MQW DFB Laser Diode	110	(7)
4.6 Summary	117	(1)
References	117	(4)
5 Multisection Lasers: Longitudinal Modes and their Dynamics
M. Radziunas, H.-J. Wünsche	121	(30)
5.1 Introduction	121	(1)
5.2 Traveling Wave Model	122	(1)
5.3 Model Details and Parameters	123	(3)
5.3.1 Model Details	123	(2)
5.3.2 Parameters	125	(1)
5.4 Simulation of a Passive Dispersive Reflector Laser	126	(3)
5.5 The Concept of Instantaneous Optical Modes	129	(2)
5.6 Mode Expansion of the Optical Field	131	(2)
5.7 Driving Forces of Mode Dynamics	133	(1)
5.8 Mode-Beating Pulsations in a PhaseCOMB Laser	134	(5)
5.8.1 Simulation	135	(1)
5.8.2 Mode Decomposition	135	(2)
5.8.3 Spatio-temporal Properties of Mode-beating Self-pulsations	137	(2)
5.9 Phase Control of Mode-beating Pulsations	139	(3)
5.9.1 Simulation of Phase Tuning	139	(1)
5.9.2 Mode Analysis	139	(1)
5.9.3 Regimes of Operation	140	(1)
5.9.4 Bifurcations	140	(2)
5.10 Conclusion	142	(1)
A Numerical Methods	142	(7)
A.1 Numerical Integration of Model Equations	142	(2)
A.2 Computation of Modes	144	(3)
A.3 Mode Decomposition	147	(2)
References	149	(2)
6 Wavelength Tunable Lasers: Time-Domain Model for SG-DBR Lasers
D.F.G. Gallagher	151	(34)
6.1 The Time-Domain Traveling Wave Model	151	(8)
6.1.1 Gain Spectrum	153	(2)
6.1.2 Noise Spectrum	155	(1)
6.1.3 Carrier Equation	155	(1)
6.1.4 Carrier Acceleration	156	(1)
6.1.5 Extension to Two and Three Dimensions	156	(2)
6.1.6 Advantages of the TDTW Method	158	(1)
6.1.7 Limitations of the TDTW Method	159	(1)
6.2 The Sampled-Grating DBR Laser	159	(19)
6.2.1 Principles	159	(4)
6.2.2 Reflection Coefficient	163	(1)
6.2.3 The Three-section SG-DBR Laser	164	(2)
6.2.4 The Four-section SG-DBR Laser	166	(3)
6.2.5 Results	169	(9)
6.3 The Digital-Supermode DBR Laser	178	(4)
6.3.1 Principle of Operation	178	(1)
6.3.2 Simulations	179	(3)
6.4 Conclusions	182	(2)
References	184	(1)
7 Monolithic Mode-Locked Semiconductor Lasers
E.A. Avrutin, V. Nikolaev, D. Gallagher	185	(32)
7.1 Background and General Considerations	185	(2)
7.2 Modeling Requirements for Specific Laser Designs and Applications	187	(2)
7.3 Overview of Dynamic Modeling Approaches	189	(11)
7.3.1 Time-Domain Lumped Models	189	(3)
7.3.2 Distributed Time-Domain Models	192	(6)
7.3.3 Static or Dynamic Modal Analysis	198	(2)
7.4 Example: Mode-Locked Lasers for WDM and OTDM Applications	200	(10)
7.4.1 Background	200	(1)
7.4.2 Choice of Modeling Approach	200	(1)
7.4.3 Parameter Ranges of Dynamic Regimes: The Background	200	(2)
7.4.4 Choice of Cavity Design: All-Active and Active/Passive, Fabry-Perot and DBR Lasers	202	(1)
7.4.5 Passive Mode Locking	203	(4)
7.4.6 Hybrid Mode Locking	207	(3)
7.5 Modeling Semiconductor Parameters: The Absorber Relaxation Time	210	(3)
7.6 Directions for Future Work	213	(1)
7.7 Summary	214	(1)
References	214	(3)
8 Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers: Single-Mode Control and Self-Heating Effects
M. Streiff, W. Fichtner, A. Witzig	217	(32)
8.1 VCSEL Device Structure	217	(4)
8.2 Device Simulator	221	(9)
8.2.1 Optical Model	221	(1)
8.2.2 Electrothermal Model	222	(4)
8.2.3 Optical Gain and Loss	226	(1)
8.2.4 Simulator Implementation	227	(3)
8.3 Design Tutorial	230	(15)
8.3.1 Single-Mode Control in VCSEL Devices	231	(1)
8.3.2 VCSEL Optical Modes	232	(6)
8.3.3 Coupled Electrothermo-Optical Simulation	238	(4)
8.3.4 Single-Mode Optimization Using Metallic Absorbers and Anti-Resonant Structures	242	(3)
8.4 Conclusions	245	(1)
References	246	(3)
9 Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers: High-Speed Performance and Analysis
J.S. Gustavsson, J. Bengtsson. A. Larsson	249	(44)
9.1 Introduction to VCSELs	249	(2)
9.2 Important Characteristics of VCSELs	251	(4)
9.2.1 Resonance and Damping: Modulation Bandwidth	251	(2)
9.2.2 Nonlinearity	253	(1)
9.2.3 Noise	254	(1)
9.3 VCSEL Model	255	(15)
9.3.1 Current Transport	255	(4)
9.3.2 Heat Transport	259	(2)
9.3.3 Optical Fields	261	(4)
9.3.4 Material Gain	265	(1)
9.3.5 Noise	265	(3)
9.3.6 Iterative Procedures	268	(2)
9.4 Simulation Example: Fundamental-Mode-Stabilized VCSELs	270	(20)
9.4.1 Surface Relief Technique	271	(4)
9.4.2 Device Structure	275	(1)
9.4.3 Simulation Results	276	(14)
9.5 Conclusion	290	(1)
References	291	(2)
10 GaN-based Light-Emitting Diodes
J. Piprek, S. Li	293	(20)
10.1 Introduction	293	(1)
10.2 Device Structure	293	(2)
10.3 Models and Parameters	295	(11)
10.3.1 Wurtzite Energy Band Structure	295	(3)
10.3.2 Carrier Transport	298	(4)
10.3.3 Heat Generation and Dissipation	302	(1)
10.3.4 Spontaneous Photon Emission	303	(1)
10.3.5 Ray Tracing	304	(2)
10.4 Results and Discussion	306	(5)
10.4.1 Internal Device Analysis	306	(2)
10.4.2 External Device Characteristics	308	(3)
10.5 Summary	311	(1)
References	311	(2)
11 Silicon Solar Cells
P.P. Altermatt	313	(30)
11.1 Operating Principles of Solar Cells	313	(2)
11.2 Basic Modeling Technique	315	(3)
11.3 Techniques for Full-Scale Modeling	318	(1)
11.4 Derivation of Silicon Material Parameters	319	(8)
11.5 Evaluating Recombination Losses	327	(3)
11.6 Modeling the Internal Operation of Cells	330	(4)
11.7 Deriving Design Rules for Minimizing Resistive Losses	334	(5)
References	339	(4)
12 Charge-Coupled Devices
C.J. Wordelm,an, E.K. Banghart	343	(38)
12.1 Introduction	343	(1)
12.2 Background	344	(4)
12.2.1 Principles of Operation of CCDs	344	(1)
12.2.2 CCD Architectures	345	(3)
12.3 Models and Methods	348	(5)
12.3.1 Process Models	349	(1)
12.3.2 Device Models	349	(3)
12.3.3 Solution Methods	352	(1)
12.4 Charge Capacity	353	(4)
12.5 Charge Transfer	357	(7)
12.5.1 Charge Transport Mechanisms	359	(5)
12.6 Charge Blooming	364	(6)
12.7 Dark Current	370	(3)
12.8 Charge Trapping	373	(4)
12.9 Summary	377	(1)
A Example Distribution	377	(1)
References	378	(3)
13 Infrared HgCdTe Optical Detectors
G.R. Jones. R.J. Jones. W. French	381	(24)
13.1 Introduction	381	(1)
13.2 Photon Detection	381	(2)
13.3 Summary of Simulation Tools	383	(6)
13.3.1 Introduction	383	(1)
13.3.2 Fundamentals of Device Simulation	384	(3)
13.3.3 Carrier Generation and Recombination Mechanisms	387	(1)
13.3.4 Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination	387	(1)
13.3.5 Auger Recombination	388	(1)
13.3.6 Recombination Through Photon Emission	388	(1)
13.4 Optoelectronic Simulation	389	(2)
13.4.1 Optical Beam Characteristics	389	(1)
13.4.2 Light Absorption and Photogeneration	390	(1)
13.5 Device Simulation	391	(9)
13.5.1 Material Parameters	391	(2)
13.5.2 Device Structure	393	(2)
13.5.3 Cross Talk Considerations	395	(1)
13.5.4 Photogeneration and Spectral Response	396	(2)
13.5.5 Recombination Studies	398	(2)
13.6 Temperature Studies	400	(2)
13.7 Variation of Composition	402	(1)
13.8 Conclusion	402	(1)
References	403	(2)
14 Monolithic Wavelength Converters: Many-Body Effects and Saturation Analysis
J. Piprek, S. Li, P. Mensz, J. Hader	405	(22)
14.1 Introduction	405	(1)
14.2 Device Structure	405	(1)
14.3 General Device Physics	406	(9)
14.3.1 Optical Waveguiding	406	(4)
14.3.2 Quantum Well Active Region	410	(4)
14.3.3 Carrier Transport	414	(1)
14.4 Simulation Results	415	(10)
14.4.1 Amplifier	416	(4)
14.4.2 Photodetector	420	(2)
14.4.3 Sampled-Grating DBR Laser	422	(3)
14.5 Summary	425	(1)
References	425	(2)
15 Active Photonic Integrated Circuits
A.J. Lowery	427	(22)
15.1 Introduction	427	(1)
15.2 Fundamental Requirements of a Simulator	428	(5)
15.2.1 Single-Mode Interfaces	428	(1)
15.2.2 Backward-Propagating Waves	428	(1)
15.2.3 Nonlinearities	429	(1)
15.2.4 Optical Time Delays	430	(1)
15.2.5 Time Domain versus Frequency Domain	430	(1)
15.2.6 Transmission Line Laser Models	431	(2)
15.3 The Simulation Environment	433	(1)
15.4 Simulation Example	434	(12)
15.4.1 Phase Discriminator	435	(2)
15.4.2 Internal Clock Source	437	(1)
15.4.3 External Clock Source	438	(2)
15.4.4 Phase Locking the Clock Sources	440	(3)
15.4.5 Optical AND Gate	443	(3)
15.4.6 Open Design Issues	446	(1)
15.5 Conclusions	446	(1)
References	447	(2)
Index	449