Physical Hydrology

by Dingman, S. Lawrence

• ISBN13: 9780130996954
• ISBN10: 0130996955
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover w/CD
• Copyright: 2002-01-01
• Publisher: Pearson College Div

Summary

This book combines a qualitative, conceptual understanding of hydrologic processes, an introduction to the quantitative representation of those processes and an understanding of approaches to hydrological measurements and the uncertainties involved in those measurements. Numerous worked examples and exercises are included throughout to help assimilate concepts, consider implications of relations developed in the book, and apply concepts to local conditions. This book provides an introduction to hydrological science and its concepts including Climate, the Hydrologic Cycle, Soils and Vegetation, Precipitation, Snow and Snowmelt, Water in Soils: Infiltration and Redistribution, Evapotranspiration, Ground Water in the Hydrological Cycle, Stream Response to Water-Input Events, Hydrology and Water-Resource Management. Suitable as a reference work for professionals already working in the field. It can also serve as a comprehensive, readily understood introduction to hydrology for professionals in related fields.

Table of Contents

Preface	ix
Introduction to Hydrologic Science	1	(6)
Definition and Scope of Hydrology	1	(1)
Development of Scientific Hydrology	1	(4)
Approach and Scope of This Book	5	(2)
Basic Hydrologic Concepts	7	(29)
Physical Quantities and Laws	7	(1)
Hydrologic Systems	7	(1)
The Conservation Equations	8	(2)
The Watershed (Drainage Basin)	10	(1)
Definition	10	(1)
Delineation	10	(1)
The Regional Water Balance	11	(6)
The Water-Balance Equation	12	(1)
Estimation of Regional Evapotranspiration	13	(4)
Spatial Variability	17	(1)
Temporal Variability	18	(4)
Time Series	18	(2)
Duration Curves	20	(2)
Storage, Storage Effects, and Residence Time	22	(3)
Storage	22	(1)
Storage Effects	23	(1)
Residence Time	24	(1)
Hydrologic Modeling	25	(11)
What is a Model?	25	(1)
Purposes of Models	26	(1)
Types of Models	27	(1)
The Modeling Process	27	(5)
The BROOK90 Model	32	(1)
Final Words of Caution	33	(3)
Climate, the Hydrologic Cycle, Soils, and Vegetation: A Global Overview	36	(58)
Basic Aspects of Global Climate	36	(12)
The Energy Budget of the Earth	36	(3)
Latitudinal Energy Transfer	39	(2)
The General Circulation and the Distribution of Pressure and Temperature	41	(3)
Teleconnections: El Nino and the Southern Oscillation	44	(4)
The Global Hydrologic Cycle	48	(35)
Stocks and Fluxes in the Global Cycle	48	(1)
Distribution of Precipitation	49	(6)
Distribution of Evapotranspiration	55	(6)
Distribution of Runoff	61	(3)
Continental Water Balances	64	(1)
Major Rivers and Lakes	64	(1)
Material Transport by Rivers	64	(8)
Your Role in the Global Hydrologic Cycle	72	(1)
Climate Change and the Hydrologic Cycle	73	(10)
Climate, Soils, and Vegetation	83	(11)
Climate and Soils	83	(6)
Climate and Vegetation	89	(5)
Precipitation	94	(72)
Meteorology of Precipitation	94	(11)
Uplift Due to Convergence	95	(3)
Uplift Due to Convection	98	(1)
Uplift Due to Orography	98	(5)
Critical Temperature for Rain-Snow Transition	103	(1)
Moisture Sources and Precipitation Recycling	104	(1)
Measurement at a Point	105	(13)
Types of Precipitation Gages	105	(3)
Factors Affecting Measurement Accuracy	108	(7)
Estimating Missing Data	115	(2)
Checking the Consistency of Point Measurements	117	(1)
Areal Estimation	118	(22)
Direct Weighted Averages	119	(2)
Surface-Fitting Methods	121	(6)
Comparison of Methods and Summary	127	(3)
Precipitation-Gage Networks	130	(5)
Radar and Satellite Observation	135	(5)
Precipitation and Rainfall Climatology	140	(22)
Long-Term Average Precipitation Rates	140	(1)
Seasonal Variability of Precipitation	140	(5)
Storm Climatology	145	(1)
Extreme Rainfall Amounts	146	(14)
Anthropogenic Effects on Precipitation Climatology	160	(2)
Precipitation Quality	162	(4)
Snow and Snowmelt	166	(54)
Material Characteristics of Snow	166	(2)
Snow Properties	166	(1)
Snowpack Metamorphism	167	(1)
Measurement of Snow and Snowmelt	168	(11)
Precipitation	169	(4)
Snowfall	173	(1)
Snowpack	173	(5)
Snowmelt, Ablation, and Water Output	178	(1)
Hydrologic Importance and Distribution of Snow	179	(6)
Water Input	179	(1)
Distribution of Snow	179	(6)
Snowmelt Processes	185	(22)
Phases of Snowmelt	185	(5)
The Energy Balance	190	(14)
Movement of Water through Snow	204	(3)
Snowmelt Modeling	207	(8)
Snowmelt at a Point	207	(7)
Watershed Snowmelt Modeling	214	(1)
Water-Quality Aspects	215	(5)
Water in Soils: Infiltration and Redistribution	220	(52)
Material Properties of Soil	221	(3)
Distribution of Pores and Particle Sizes	221	(1)
Particle Density	222	(1)
Bulk Density	222	(1)
Porosity	222	(2)
Soil-Water Storage	224	(3)
Volumetric Water Content	224	(2)
Degree of Saturation	226	(1)
Total Soil-Water Storage	227	(1)
Soil-Water Flow	227	(8)
Darcy's Law	227	(1)
Soil-Water Pressure	228	(2)
Pressure-Water-Content Relations	230	(1)
Hydraulic Conductivity	231	(1)
Hydraulic-Conductivity-Water-Content Relations	231	(1)
Analytic Approximations of ψ - &thetas; and Kh---&thetas; Relations	232	(2)
Hydraulic Diffusivity	234	(1)
Sorptivity	235	(1)
Water Conditions in Natural Soils	235	(8)
Soil-Water Status	235	(3)
Soil Profiles	238	(5)
Infiltration: Measurement and Qualitative Description	243	(5)
Definitions	243	(1)
Measurement	243	(2)
Basic Characteristics of the Infiltration Process	245	(1)
Factors Affecting Infiltration Rate	246	(2)
Quantitative Modeling of Infiltration at a Point	248	(17)
The Richards Equation	249	(2)
The Green-and-Ampt Model	251	(7)
Green-and-Ampt Approach for Shallow Soils	258	(3)
Application of the Philip Equation	261	(1)
Infiltration over Areas	261	(4)
Redistribution	265	(4)
Completely Wetted Profiles	266	(1)
Partially Wetted Profiles	267	(1)
Modeling	268	(1)
Summary	269	(3)
Evapotranspiration	272	(53)
Physics of Evaporation and Turbulent Energy Exchange	273	(2)
Evaporation	273	(1)
Vapor-Pressure Relations	273	(1)
Latent-Heat Exchange	274	(1)
Sensible-Heat Exchange	274	(1)
The Bowen Ratio, the Psychrometric Constant, and the Evaporative Fraction	274	(1)
The Energy Balance	274	(1)
Classification of Evapotranspiration Processes	275	(1)
Free-Water, Lake, and Wetland Evaporation	275	(16)
Water-Balance Approach	276	(1)
Mass-Transfer Approach	277	(3)
Eddy-Correlation Approach	280	(1)
Energy-Balance Approach	281	(4)
Penman or Combination Approach	285	(3)
Pan-Evaporation Approach	288	(3)
Bare-Soil Evaporation	291	(3)
Transpiration	294	(7)
The Transpiration Process	294	(1)
Modeling Transpiration	295	(6)
Interception and Interception Loss	301	(7)
Definitions	302	(1)
Measurement	302	(1)
Modeling	303	(3)
Hydrologic Importance of Interception Loss	306	(2)
Water-Quality Aspects	308	(1)
Potential Evapotranspiration	308	(3)
Conceptual Definition	308	(2)
Operational Definitions	310	(1)
Comparison of PET Estimation Methods	311	(1)
Actual Evapotranspiration	311	(14)
Potential-Evapotranspiration Approaches	311	(7)
Water-Balance Approaches	318	(3)
Turbulent-Transfer/Energy-Balance Methods	321	(1)
Methods Based on Water-Quality Analyses	322	(3)
Ground Water in the Hydrologic Cycle	325	(64)
Basic Principles of Ground-Water Flow	326	(9)
Darcy's Law	326	(1)
Classification of Ground-Water Flows	327	(1)
Storage Properties of Porous Media	328	(3)
Transmission Properties of Porous Media	331	(1)
Response Characteristics of Porous Media	332	(1)
General Ground-Water Flow Equation	333	(2)
Regional Ground-Water Flow	335	(7)
General Features	337	(1)
Effects of Topography	337	(1)
Effects of Geology	338	(4)
Ground-Water---Surface-Water Relations	342	(12)
Ground Water and Streams	342	(5)
Ground Water and Lakes and Wetlands	347	(3)
Ground Water and the Ocean	350	(4)
Ground Water in the Regional Water Balance	354	(4)
Basic Water-Balance Relations	354	(1)
Ground-Water Residence Time	354	(2)
The Dupuit Approximation for Modeling Flow in Unconfined Aquifers	356	(2)
Evaluation of Ground-Water-Balance Components	358	(21)
Recharge from Infiltration	358	(12)
Recharge from Surface Water	370	(1)
Ground-Water Contributions to Streamflow	371	(5)
Capillary Rise	376	(1)
Deep Seepage	377	(2)
Impacts of Ground-Water Development on Basin Hydrology	379	(10)
Hydraulics of Ground-Water Development	379	(3)
Effects of Ground-Water Extraction	382	(5)
``Safe Yield''	387	(2)
Stream Response to Water-Input Events	389	(68)
Basic Aspects of Stream Response	389	(18)
The Phenomenon of Stream Response	389	(4)
Hydrograph Separation	393	(3)
Event-Flow Volume	396	(1)
Quantitative Description of Response Hydrographs	396	(6)
Effects of Input and Basin Characteristics on the Hydrograph	402	(5)
Mechanisms Producing Event Response	407	(17)
Channel Precipitation	407	(1)
Overland Flow	408	(4)
Subsurface Event Flow	412	(12)
Overview of Event-Response Mechanisms	424	(1)
Open-Channel Flow and Streamflow Routing	424	(8)
Basic Relations of Open-Channel Flow	425	(2)
The Convex Routing Method	427	(5)
The Stream Network	432	(3)
Quantitative Description of Stream Networks	432	(1)
Drainage Density	433	(1)
Relations between Network Characteristics and Stream Response	433	(2)
Rainfall-Runoff Modeling	435	(8)
Basic Approach: The Systems View	436	(2)
Fundamental Considerations	438	(5)
Rainfall-Runoff Models	443	(14)
The Rational Method	443	(2)
SCS Curve-Number Method	445	(5)
The Unit Hydrograph	450	(7)
Hydrology and Water-Resource Management	457	(72)
Water-Resource Management	457	(7)
Water-Resource Management Goals and Objectives	457	(3)
The Geographical Unit for Water-Resources Management	460	(1)
The Management Process	461	(2)
The Role of Hydrologic Analysis	463	(1)
Hydrologic Analysis: Water Supply and Demand	464	(24)
Classification of Water Uses	464	(1)
Water Use, Demand, and Shortage	464	(1)
Water Supply and ``Safe Yield'': Basic Concepts	465	(1)
Water Supply and ``Safe Yield'': Ground Water	466	(6)
Water Supply and ``Safe Yield'': Surface Water	472	(16)
Hydrologic Analysis: Water Quality	488	(12)
Definitions and Basic Concepts	488	(4)
Overview of Major Water-Quality Issues	492	(2)
Examples of Hydrologic Analysis	494	(6)
Hydrologic Analysis: Floods	500	(8)
Definitions and Basic Concepts	500	(1)
Overview of Major Flood Issues	501	(1)
Framework for Analysis of Floodplain-Management Alternatives	501	(5)
Flood-Frequency Analysis	506	(2)
Hydrologic Analysis: Low Streamflows and Droughts	508	(11)
Definitions and Basic Concepts	508	(2)
Overview of Major Low-Flow and Drought Issues	510	(1)
Low-Flow Frequency Analysis	511	(1)
Drought Analysis	512	(7)
Concluding Comment	519	(1)
Current and Projected Water Use	519	(10)
Basic Concepts	519	(1)
Current and Projected Use: United States	520	(3)
Current and Projected Use: Global	523	(6)
A Hydrologic Quantities	529	(7)
Dimensions and Units	529	(1)
Dimensions	529	(1)
Units	530	(1)
Precision and Significant Figures	530	(1)
Absolute Precision	530	(1)
Relative Precision	531	(1)
Unit Conversion	531	(2)
Equations: Dimensional Properties and Conversion	533	(3)
Dimensional Properties	533	(1)
Equation Conversion	534	(2)
B Water as a Substance	536	(16)
Structure of Water	536	(4)
Molecular and Inter-Molecular Structure	536	(1)
Freezing and Melting	537	(1)
Evaporation and Condensation	537	(1)
Dissociation	538	(1)
Isotopes	539	(1)
Properties of Water	540	(8)
Density	541	(1)
Surface Tension	542	(2)
Boundary-Layer Flow, Viscosity, and Turbulence	544	(3)
Thermal Capacity	547	(1)
Latent Heats	547	(1)
Solvent Power	548	(1)
Flow Equations	548	(4)
Ground-Water Flows	548	(1)
Open-Channel Flows	548	(4)
C Statistical Concepts Useful in Hydrology	552	(30)
Probability and Random Variables	552	(1)
Probability Distributions	553	(7)
Discrete Random Variables	553	(1)
Continuous Random Variables	553	(1)
Expectation	554	(1)
Quantiles	554	(3)
Product Moments	557	(1)
Probability-Weighted Moments and L-Moments	558	(2)
Exceedence Probability and Return Period	560	(1)
Covariance and Correlation	561	(2)
Data Analysis: Identifying an Appropriate Probability Distribution	563	(3)
Sample Quantiles	563	(1)
The Probability-Plot Correlation Coefficient Approach	563	(2)
L-Moment Approach	565	(1)
Data Analysis: Estimating Parameters of Probability Distributions	566	(1)
Method of Moments	566	(1)
Method of Maximum Likelihood	566	(1)
Method of L-Moments	566	(1)
The Normal Distribution	567	(3)
Normal pdf and cdf	567	(3)
Log-Normal Distribution	570	(1)
Sampling Error	570	(6)
Standard Errors	571	(1)
Sampling Distributions	572	(1)
Confidence Intervals	573	(3)
Persistence and Autocorrelation	576	(4)
Definition and Estimation	576	(1)
Causes and Significance	576	(2)
Effects of Persistence on Uncertainty of Time-Series Statistics	578	(1)
Effects of Persistence on Uncertainty of Correlation Estimates	579	(1)
Statistical Criteria for Model Calibration and Validation	580	(2)
Nash-Sutcliffe Coefficient	580	(1)
Coefficient of Gain from Daily Means	580	(1)
Evaluation Measures Used in BROOK90	581	(1)
D Water and Energy in the Atmosphere	582	(19)
Physics of Radiant Energy	582	(1)
Composition and Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere	583	(3)
Composition	583	(1)
Vertical Structure	584	(1)
Pressure-Temperature Relations	584	(2)
Water Vapor	586	(1)
Vapor Pressure	586	(1)
Absolute Humidity	586	(1)
Specific Humidity	586	(1)
Relative Humidity	587	(1)
Dew Point	587	(1)
Physics of Evaporation	587	(2)
Mass (Water) Transfer	587	(2)
Latent-Heat Transfer	589	(1)
Physics of Precipitation	589	(4)
Cooling	590	(1)
Condensation	590	(1)
Droplet Growth	591	(1)
Importation of Water Vapor	592	(1)
Physics of Turbulent Transfer Near the Ground	593	(8)
Planetary Boundary Layer	593	(1)
Turbulent Velocity Fluctuations	593	(1)
Vertical Distribution of Wind Velocity	594	(1)
Diffusion	594	(2)
Momentum Transfer	596	(1)
Latent-Heat Transfer	597	(1)
Sensible-Heat Transfer	598	(1)
Effects of Atmospheric Stability on Heat and Vapor Transfer	598	(1)
Eddy Correlation	599	(2)
E Estimation of Daily Clear-Sky Solar Radiation on Sloping Surfaces	601	(7)
Radiation Incident on a Horizontal Plane	601	(5)
Extraterrestrial Radiation	601	(3)
Direct (Beam) Radiation at the Surface	604	(1)
Diffuse Radiation	605	(1)
Global Radiation	606	(1)
Backscattered Radiation	606	(1)
Total Incident Radiation	606	(1)
Radiation on a Sloping Plane	606	(2)
Equivalent Slope	606	(1)
Solar Noon, Sunrise, and Sunset	606	(1)
Extraterrestrial Radiation	606	(1)
Total Incident Radiation at the Surface	607	(1)
F Stream-Gaging Methods for Short-Term Studies	608	(16)
Selection of Measurement Location	608	(1)
Velocity-Area Method	609	(4)
Selection of Measurement Section	609	(1)
Method of Integration	610	(1)
Measurement of Velocity	611	(1)
Accuracy	612	(1)
Dilution Gaging	613	(1)
Sharp-Crested V-Notch Weirs	614	(2)
Flumes	616	(1)
Stage Measurement	617	(2)
Methods of Measurement	617	(1)
Measurement Location	618	(1)
Stage-Discharge Relations at Natural Controls	618	(1)
Slope-Area Measurements	619	(5)
Standard Method	619	(3)
Simplified Method	622	(2)
G Hydrological Websites
References	624	(16)
Index	640

Excerpts

The goal of the first edition ofPhysical Hydrologywas to provide a comprehensive text for upper-level undergraduates and graduate students that treats hydrology as a distinct geoscience. It attempted to develop an understanding of the conceptual basis of hydrology and an introduction to the quantitative relations that implement that understanding in answering scientific and water-resources-management questions. The text seemed to fulfill a need, and I have been pleased with its reception by my colleagues and students. My primary goals in revisingPhysical Hydrologyhave been to incorporate significant advances in the rapidly developing field of hydrologic science, to provide a more explicit connection of that science to hydrologic modeling, and to make more complete and useful the treatment of the relation between scientific hydrology and water-resources management. The major changes that have resulted are the following: Chapter 2 (Basic Hydrologic Concepts) now concludes with an introduction to hydrologic modeling, including discussions of model use, modeling terminology, and the process of model development. It also introduces the BROOK90 model, a physically based, lumped-parameter model that can be readily accessed on the World-Wide Web for student use. Discussions of the ways in which BROOK90 incorporates the physical relations discussed in the text are included as boxes in many of the subsequent chapters. Chapter 3 (Global Climate, Hydrologic Cycle, Soils, and Vegetation) now includes a tabulation of documented trends in global change of climatic and hydrologic quantities. In Chapter 4 (Precipitation), I have added a more extensive discussion of precipitation recycling and a new section on methods for handling missing data--an almost universal problem in hydrologic analysis. Also, the discussion of methods for estimating areal precipitation has been streamlined somewhat (one of the few places in which I was able to cut!). In Chapter 5 (Snow and Snowmelt), I have updated the discussion of ways of estimating energy-balance components and added a discussion of hybrid snowmelt models that combine energy-balance and temperature-index approaches. Chapter 6 (Water in Soils) now introduces the concepts of soil-moisture diffusivity and sorptivity, adds a discussion of equilibrium soil-moisture profiles, and expands the discussion of moisture redistribution. Chapter 7 (Evapotranspiration) now contains a brief discussion of soil evaporation as well as updates of the treatments of lake evaporation and energy-budget estimation. In Chapter 8 (Ground Water), the discussion of ground--water-surface-water relations has been expanded to include hyporheic flow and the Dupuit approximation for unconfined aquifers draining to streams. Chapter 9 (Stream Response to Water Input) has been reorganized so that the discussion of the mechanisms of stream response to water-input events now precedes the sections on rainfall-runoff modeling. The treatments of both mechanisms and modeling have been substantially revised and updated, and much of the detailed discussion of open-channel flow has been moved to Appendix B. Chapter 10 (Hydrology and Water Resources) has been entirely rewritten and expanded. It now includes a more complete and modern treatment of water-resource management goals and processes; a more detailed discussion of water supply and demand, including the concept of "safe yield" in various ground-water and surface-water settings and an expanded discussion of the estimation and application of flow-duration curves; a more complete discussion of water-quality issues; an expanded section on floods, including flood-frequency analysis; a completely new section on drought and low-flow analysis; and a concluding section on current and projected United States and global water use. Appendix A (Hydrologic Quantities) has been reorg