Physical Metallurgy Principles

by Abbaschian, Reza; Reed-Hill, Robert E.

• ISBN13: 9780534921736
• ISBN10: 0534921736
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1991-12-24
• Publisher: CL Engineering

Summary

* Covers all aspects of physical metallurgy and behavior of metals and alloys. * Presents the principles on which metallurgy is based. * Concepts such as heat affected zone and structure-property relationships are covered. * Principles of casting are clearly outlined in the chapter on solidification. * Advanced treatment on physical metallurgy provides specialized information on metals.

Table of Contents

The Structure of Metals	1	(33)
The Structure of Metals	1	(1)
Metallographic Specimen Preparation	2	(3)
The Crystal Structure of Metals	5	(1)
Unit Cells	5	(1)
The Body-Centered Cubic Structure	6	(1)
Coordination Number of the Body-Centered Cubic Lattice	6	(1)
The Face-Centered Cubic Lattice	7	(1)
The Unit Cell of the Close-Packed Hexagonal Lattice	8	(1)
Comparison of the Face-Centered Cubic and Close-Packed Hexagonal Structures	9	(1)
Coordination Number of the Systems of Closest Packing,	10	(1)
Anisotropy	10	(1)
Textures or Preferred Orientations,	11	(2)
Miller Indices	13	(5)
Crystal Structures of the Metallic Elements	18	(1)
The Stereographic Projection	19	(2)
Directions That Lie in a Plane	21	(1)
Planes of a Zone	21	(2)
The Wulff Net	23	(3)
Standard Projections	26	(3)
The Standard Stereographic Triangle for Cubic Crystals	29	(4)
Problems	30	(3)
Analytical Methods	33	(35)
The Bragg Law	33	(4)
Laue Techniques	37	(3)
The Rotating Crystal Method	40	(1)
The Debye-Scherrer or Powder Method	40	(4)
The X-Ray Diffractometer	44	(1)
The Transmission Electron Microscope	44	(7)
Interactions Between the Electrons in an Electron Beam and a Metallic Specimen	51	(1)
Elastic Scattering	51	(1)
Inelastic Scattering	52	(1)
Electron Spectrum	52	(1)
The Scanning Electron Microscope	53	(3)
Topographic Contrast	56	(2)
The Picture Element Size	58	(2)
The Depth of Focus	60	(1)
Microanalysis of Specimens	60	(1)
Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis	60	(2)
The Characteristic X-Rays	62	(2)
Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)	64	(2)
The Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM)	66	(2)
Problems	67	(1)
Crystal Binding	68	(21)
The Internal Energy of a Crystal	68	(1)
Ionic Crystals	68	(2)
The Born Theory of Ionic Crystals	70	(4)
Van der Waals Crystals	74	(1)
Dipoles	74	(2)
Inert Gases	76	(1)
Induced Dipoles	76	(2)
The Lattice Energy of an Inert-Gas Solid	78	(1)
The Debye Frequency	78	(2)
The Zero Point Energy	80	(1)
Dipole-Quadrupole and Quadrupole-Quadrupole Terms	81	(1)
Molecular Crystals	82	(1)
Refinements to the Born Theory of Ionic Crystals	82	(1)
Covalent and Metallic Bonding	83	(6)
Problems	87	(2)
Introduction to Dislocations	89	(35)
The Discrepancy Between the Theoretical and Observed Yield Stresses of Crystals	89	(2)
Dislocations	91	(8)
The Burgers Vector	99	(3)
Vector Notation for Dislocations	102	(1)
Dislocations in the Face-Centered Cubic Lattice	103	(4)
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Stacking Faults in Face-Centered Cubic Metals	107	(1)
Extended Dislocations in Hexagonal Metals	108	(1)
Climb of Edge Dislocations	108	(2)
Dislocation Intersections	110	(3)
The Stress Field of a Screw Dislocation	113	(1)
The Stress Field of an Edge Dislocation	114	(2)
The Force on a Dislocation	116	(4)
The Strain Energy of a Screw Dislocation	120	(1)
The Strain Energy of an Edge Dislocation	121	(3)
Problems	121	(3)
Dislocations and Plastic Deformation	124	(44)
The Frank-Read Source	124	(1)
Nucleation of Dislocations	125	(4)
Bend Gliding	129	(2)
Rotational Slip	131	(3)
Slip Planes and Slip Directions	134	(1)
Slip Systems	135	(1)
Critical Resolved Shear Stress	136	(3)
Slip on Equivalent Slip Systems	139	(1)
The Dislocation Density	140	(1)
Slip System in Different Crystal Forms	140	(6)
Cross-Slip	146	(1)
Slip Bands	147	(1)
Double Cross-Slip	148	(1)
Extended Dislocations and Cross-Slip	149	(2)
Crystal Structure Rotation During Tensile and Compressive Deformation	151	(2)
The Notation for the Slip Systems in the Deformation of F.C.C. Crystals	153	(3)
Work Hardening	156	(2)
Considere's Criterion	158	(1)
The Relation Between Dislocation Density and the Stress	159	(1)
Taylor's Relation	160	(1)
The Dislocation Velocity	161	(1)
The Discontinuous Nature of Dislocation Movement	162	(1)
The Orowan Equation	163	(5)
Problems	165	(3)
Elements of Grain Boundaries	168	(36)
Grain Boundaries	168	(1)
Dislocation Model of a Small-Angle Grain Boundary	168	(2)
The Five Degrees of Freedom of a Grain Boundary	170	(2)
The Stress Field of a Grain Boundary	172	(2)
Grain-Boundary Energy	174	(4)
Low-Energy Dislocation Structures, LEDS	178	(3)
Dynamic Recovery	181	(2)
Surface Tension of the Grain Boundary	183	(3)
Boundaries Between Crystals of Different Phases	186	(4)
The Grain Size	190	(2)
The Effect of Grain Boundaries on Mechanical Properties	192	(2)
Coincidence Site Boundaries	194	(2)
The Density of Coincidence Sites	196	(1)
The Ranganathan Relations	196	(1)
Examples Involving Twist Boundaries	197	(2)
Tilt Boundaries	199	(5)
Problems	202	(2)
Vacancies	204	(23)
Thermal Behavior of Metals	204	(1)
Internal Energy	205	(1)
Entropy	206	(1)
Spontaneous Reactions	207	(1)
Gibbs Free Energy	207	(2)
Statistical Mechanical Definition of Entropy	209	(5)
Vacancies	214	(5)
Vacancy Motion	219	(3)
Interstitial Atoms and Divacancies	222	(5)
Problems	225	(2)
Annealing	227	(45)
Stored Energy of Cold Work	227	(1)
The Relationship of Free Energy to Strain Energy	228	(1)
The Release of Stored Energy	229	(1)
Recovery	230	(1)
Recovery in Single Crystals	231	(2)
Polygonization	233	(2)
Dislocation Movements in Polygonization	235	(4)
Recovery Processes at High and Low Temperatures	239	(1)
Recrystallization	240	(1)
The Effect of Time and Temperature on Recrystallization	240	(2)
Recrystallization Temperature	242	(1)
The Effect of Strain on Recrystallization	243	(1)
The Rate of Nucleation and the Rate of Nucleus Growth	244	(1)
Formation of Nuclei	245	(2)
Driving Force for Recrystallization	247	(1)
The Recrystallized Grain Size	247	(2)
Other Variables in Recrystallization	249	(1)
Purity of the Metal	250	(1)
Initial Grain Size	251	(1)
Grain Growth	251	(3)
Geometrical Coalescence	254	(1)
Three-Dimensional Changes in Grain Geometry	255	(1)
The Grain Growth Law	256	(5)
Impurity Atoms in Solid Solution	261	(1)
Impurities in the Form of Inclusions	262	(2)
The Free-Surface Effects	264	(2)
The Limiting Grain Size	266	(1)
Preferred Orientation	267	(1)
Secondary Recrystallization	268	(1)
Strain-Induced Boundary Migration	269	(3)
Problems	270	(2)
Solid Solutions	272	(28)
Solid Solutions	272	(1)
Intermediate Phases	272	(1)
Interstitial Solid Solutions	273	(1)
Solubility of Carbon in Body-Centered Cubic Iron	274	(4)
Substitutional Solid Solutions and the Hume-Rothery Rules	278	(1)
Interaction of Dislocations and Solute Atoms	279	(1)
Dislocation Atmospheres	279	(1)
The Formation of a Dislocation Atmosphere	280	(1)
The Evaluation of A	281	(1)
The Drag of Atmospheres on Moving Dislocations	282	(2)
The Sharp Yield Point and Luders Bands	284	(2)
The Theory of the Sharp Yield Point	286	(2)
Strain Aging	288	(1)
The Cottrell-Bilby Theory of Strain Aging	289	(5)
Dynamic Strain Aging	294	(6)
Problems	298	(2)
Phases	300	(25)
Basic Definitions	300	(2)
The Physical Nature of Phase Mixtures	302	(1)
Thermodynamics of Solutions	302	(3)
Equilibrium Between Two Phases	305	(1)
The Number of Phases in an Alloy System	306	(9)
Two-Component Systems Containing Two Phases	315	(2)
Graphical Determinations of Partial-Molal Free Energies	317	(2)
Two-Component Systems with Three Phases in Equilibrium	319	(1)
The Phase Rule	320	(2)
Ternary Systems	322	(3)
Problems	323	(2)
Binary Phase Diagrams	325	(35)
Phase Diagrams	325	(1)
Isomorphous Alloy Systems	325	(2)
The Lever Rule	327	(3)
Equilibrium Heating or Cooling of an Isomorphous Alloy	330	(2)
The Isomorphous Alloy System from the Point of View of Free Energy	332	(2)
Maxima and Minima	334	(2)
Superlattices	336	(4)
Miscibility Gaps	340	(2)
Eutectic Systems	342	(1)
The Micro-structures of Eutectic Systems	343	(6)
The Peritectic Transformation	349	(3)
Monotectics	352	(1)
Other Three-Phase Reactions	353	(1)
Intermediate Phases	353	(3)
The Copper-Zinc Phase Diagram	356	(4)
Problems	358	(2)
Diffusion in Substitutional Solid Solutions	360	(43)
Diffusion in an Ideal Solution	360	(4)
The Kirkendall Effect	364	(3)
Porosity	367	(2)
Darken's Equations	369	(4)
Fick's Second Law	373	(3)
The Matano Method	376	(3)
Determination of the Intrinsic Diffusivities	379	(2)
Self-Diffusion in Pure Metals	381	(2)
Temperature Dependence of the Diffusion Coefficient	383	(2)
Chemical Diffusion at Low-Solute Concentration	385	(2)
The Study of Chemical Diffusion Using Radioactive Tracers	387	(3)
Diffusion Along Grain Boundaries and Free Surfaces	390	(5)
Fick's First Law in Terms of a Mobility and an Effective Force	395	(8)
Problems	401	(2)
Interstital Diffusion	403	(18)
Measurement of Interstitial Diffusivities	404	(1)
The Snoek Effect	405	(6)
Experimental Determination of the Relaxation Time	411	(7)
Experimental Data	418	(1)
Anelastic Measurement at Constant Strain	419	(2)
Problems	420	(1)
Solidification of Metals	421	(58)
The Liquid Phase	421	(4)
Nucleation	425	(2)
Metallic Glasses	427	(7)
Crystal Growth from the Liquid Phase	434	(2)
The Heats of Fusion and Vaporization	436	(1)
The Nature of the Liquid-Solid Interface	437	(2)
Continuous Growth	439	(2)
Lateral Growth	441	(2)
Stable Interface Freezing	443	(1)
Dendritic Growth in Pure Metals	444	(3)
Freezing in Alloys	447	(2)
The Scheil Equation	449	(3)
Dendritic Freezing in Alloys	452	(3)
Freezing of Ingots	455	(3)
The Grain Size of Castings	458	(1)
Segregation	459	(2)
Homogenization	461	(6)
Inverse Segregation	467	(1)
Porosity	467	(4)
Eutectic Freezing	471	(8)
Problems	476	(3)
Nucleation and Growth Kinetics	479	(36)
Nucleation of a Liquid from the Vapor	479	(8)
The Becker-Doring Theory	487	(2)
Freezing	489	(3)
Solid-State Reactions	492	(3)
Heterogeneous Nucleation	495	(3)
Growth Kinetics	498	(3)
Diffusion Controlled Growth	501	(5)
Interference of Growing Precipitate Particles	506	(1)
Interface Controlled Growth	507	(2)
Transformations That Occur on Heating	509	(1)
Dissolution of a Precipitate	510	(5)
Problems	513	(2)
Precipitation Hardening	515	(23)
The Significance of the Solvus Curve	515	(2)
The Solution Treatment	517	(1)
The Aging Treatment	518	(3)
Development of Precipitates	521	(2)
Aging of Al-Cu Alloys at Temperatures Above 100°C (373K)	523	(3)
Precipitation Sequences in Other Aluminum Alloys	526	(2)
Homogenous versus Heterogeneous Nucleation of Precipitates	528	(1)
Interphase Precipitation	529	(3)
Theories of Hardening	532	(2)
Additional Factors in Precipitation Hardening	534	(4)
Problems	535	(3)
Deformation Twinning and Martensite Reactions	538	(50)
Deformation Twinning	538	(3)
Formal Crystallographic Theory of Twinning	541	(6)
Identification of Deformation Twins	547	(1)
Nucleation of Twins	548	(1)
Twin Boundaries	549	(2)
Twin Growth	551	(2)
Accommodation of the Twinning Shear	553	(1)
The Significance of Twinning in Plastic Deformation	554	(1)
The Theoretical Tensile Strain Due to Twinning of a Single Crystal	555	(1)
Deformation in Metals That Deform Primarily by Twinning	556	(1)
The Effect of Twinning on Face-Centered Cubic Stress-Strain Curves	556	(3)
The Beneficial Effect of Twinning on Both Ductility and Strength in F.C.C. Metals	559	(2)
Martensite	561	(2)
The Bain Distortion	563	(1)
The Martensite-site Transformation in an Indium-Thallium Alloy	564	(2)
Reversibility of the Martensite Transformation	566	(1)
Athermal Transformation	566	(1)
Wechsler, Lieberman, and Read Theory	567	(6)
Irrational Nature of the Habit Plane	573	(1)
Multiplicity of Habit Planes	574	(1)
Status of the Phenomenological Crystallographic Theory	574	(1)
The Iron-Nickel Martensitic Transformation	574	(2)
Isothermal Formation of Martensite	576	(1)
Stabilization	577	(1)
Nucleation of Martensite Plates	577	(2)
Growth of Martensite Plates	579	(1)
The Effect of Stress	579	(1)
The Effect of Plastic Deformation	580	(1)
Thermoelastic Martensite Transformations	580	(3)
Elastic Deformation of Thermoelastic Alloys	583	(1)
Stress-Induced Martensite	583	(1)
The Shape-Memory Effect	584	(4)
Problems	586	(2)
The Iron-Carbon Alloy System	588	(44)
The Iron-Carbon Diagram	588	(3)
The Proeutectoid Transformations of Austenite	591	(2)
The Transformation of Austenite to Pearlite	593	(6)
The Growth of Pearlite	599	(1)
The Effect of Temperature on the Pearlite Transformation	600	(2)
Forced-Velocity Growth of Pearlite	602	(4)
The Effects of Alloying Elements on the Growth of Pearlite	606	(3)
The Rate of Nucleation of Pearlite	609	(1)
Time-Temperature-Transformation Curves	610	(2)
The Bainite Reaction	612	(8)
The Complete TTT Diagram of an Eutectoid Steel	620	(2)
Slowly Cooled Hypoeutectoid Steels	622	(3)
Slowly Cooled Hypereutectoid Steels	625	(2)
Isothermal Transformation Diagrams for Noneutectoid Steels	627	(5)
Problems	630	(2)
The Hardening of Steel	632	(56)
Continuous Cooling Transformations	632	(3)
Hardenability	635	(6)
The Variables That Determine the Hardenability of a Steel	641	(1)
Austenitic Grain Size	642	(2)
The Effect of Austenitic Grain Size on Hardenability	644	(1)
The Influence of Carbon Content on Hardenability	644	(1)
The Influence of Alloying Elements on Hardenability	645	(5)
The Significance of Hardenability	650	(1)
The Martensite Transformation in Steel	651	(5)
The Hardness of Iron-Carbon Martensite	656	(4)
Dimensional Changes Associated with the Formation of Martensite	660	(1)
Quench Cracks	661	(3)
Tempering	664	(6)
Tempering of a Low-Carbon Steel	670	(3)
Spheroidized Cementite	673	(1)
The Effect of Tempering on Physical Properties	674	(3)
The Interrelation Between Time and Temperature in Tempering	677	(1)
Secondary Hardening	678	(1)
High-Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) Steels	679	(5)
Dual-Phase Steels	684	(1)
The Control of Nonmetallic Inclusions in HSLA Steels	684	(4)
Problems	685	(3)
Selected Nonferrous Alloy Systems	688	(37)
Commercially Pure Copper	688	(3)
Copper Alloys	691	(4)
Copper Beryllium	695	(2)
Other Copper Alloys	697	(1)
Aluminum Alloys	697	(1)
Aluminum-Lithium Alloys	698	(8)
Titanium Alloys	706	(7)
Classification of Titanium Alloys	713	(1)
The Alpha Alloys	713	(2)
The Beta Alloys	715	(1)
The Alpha-Beta Alloys	715	(3)
Superalloys	718	(3)
Creep Strength	721	(4)
Problems	722	(3)
Fracture	725	(47)
Failure by Easy Glide	725	(1)
Rupture by Necking (Multiple Glide)	726	(1)
The Effect of Twinning	727	(1)
Cleavage	728	(2)
The Nucleation of Cleavage Cracks	730	(2)
Propagation of Cleavage Cracks	732	(5)
The Effect of Grain Boundaries	737	(1)
The Effect of the State of Stress	738	(1)
Ductile Fractures	739	(7)
Intercrystalline Brittle Fracture	746	(1)
Blue Brittleness	747	(1)
Fatigue Failures	748	(1)
The Macroscopic Character of Fatigue Failure	748	(2)
The Rotating-Beam Fatigue Test	750	(2)
Alternating Stress Parameters	752	(3)
The Microscopic Aspects of Fatigue Failure	755	(5)
Fatigue Crack Growth	760	(2)
The Effect of Nonmetallic Inclusions	762	(1)
The Effect of Steel Microstructure on Fatigue	763	(1)
Low-Cycle Fatigue	764	(4)
The Coffin-Manson Equation	768	(2)
Certain Practical Aspects of Fatigue	770	(2)
Problems	770	(2)
Fracture Mechanics	772	(64)
Fracture Mechanics	772	(1)
Fracture in Glass	772	(3)
The Griffith Theory	775	(2)
Griffith Cracks in Glass	777	(1)
Crack Velocities	777	(1)
The Griffith Equation	778	(1)
The Griffith Equation in Relation to Polycrystalline Metal	779	(2)
The Primary Modes of Fracture	781	(3)
The Crack Extension and Resistance Forces	784	(1)
Crack Growth Under Fixed Grips Versus Growth Under Constant Load	785	(2)
The Griffith Equation for Plane-Strain Crack Growth	787	(1)
The Stress Field of a Crack	787	(2)
The Stress Intensity Factor	789	(1)
Relation of the Stress Intensity Factor to the Crack Extension Force	789	(1)
The Crack Flank Displacement Equation	790	(1)
Fracture in Metals	791	(1)
The Plastic Constraint Factor	792	(1)
The Plastic Zone Size Ahead of a Crack	792	(3)
The Effect of Plate Thickness on Fracture Toughness	795	(1)
The Effect of a Finite Specimen Width on the Stress Intensity Factor	796	(1)
The ASTM Plane Strain Fracture Mechanics Tests	797	(1)
Dimensional Restrictions on the ASTM Plane Strain Fracture Test Specimens	798	(5)
The R Curve	803	(1)
Plane Stress R Curves	804	(2)
R Curve Determinations	806	(2)
The Invariance of the R Curve with Respect to the Initial Crack Length	808	(1)
The Through Thickness Yielding Criterion	808	(1)
General Yielding	808	(1)
Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics	809	(1)
The Rate of Energy Release	810	(1)
The Compliance as a Means of Determining Stress Intensity Factors	811	(3)
The J Integral	814	(3)
The Crack Opening Displacement	817	(2)
Fatigue Crack Growth	819	(4)
Stress Corrosion	823	(1)
The Crack Growth Rate Dependence on K in Stress Corrosion Cracking	824	(1)
Slow Strain Rate Embrittlement	825	(3)
The Impact Test	828	(2)
The Significance of the Impact Test	830	(2)
Conclusion Concerning the Impact Test	832	(1)
Temper Brittleness	833	(3)
Problems	834	(2)
Thermally Activated Plastic Deformation	836	(64)
The Dual Nature of the Flow Stress	836	(1)
The Nature of the Flow Stress Components	837	(1)
The Effect of Alloying on the Flow Stress Components	838	(2)
The Relative Roles of the flow Stress Components in Face-Centered Cubic and Body-Centered Cubic Metals	840	(2)
Superplasticity	842	(2)
The Nature of the Time Dependent Strain	844	(5)
Creep Mechanisms	849	(10)
An Alternative Activation Energy Expression for the Strain-Rate Equation	859	(3)
Creep When More Than One Mechanism Is Operating	862	(5)
Another View of the Rate Controlling Mechanism	867	(1)
Experimental Determination of the Activation Volume and the Activation Energy Using Stress-Strain Data	867	(1)
Grain-Boundary Shear	868	(2)
Intercrystalline Fracture	870	(4)
Grain-Boundary Cavities and Creep Embrittlement	874	(1)
Cavity Growth During Creep	875	(4)
Cavity Nucleation During Creep	879	(2)
The Creep Curve	881	(4)
Dynamic Annealing	885	(1)
Cyclic or Periodic Creep	885	(1)
Dynamic Annealing in Relation to Hot Working	886	(3)
A Theory of the Stress-Strain Curve Involving Dynamic Recovery	889	(2)
Practical Applications of Creep Data	891	(3)
Creep-Resistant Alloys	894	(2)
Alloy Systems	896	(4)
Problems	897	(3)
Appendices	900	(12)
A Angles Between Crystallographic Planes in the Cubic System	900	(2)
B Angles Between Crystallographic Planes for Hexagonal Elements	902	(1)
C Indices of the Reflecting Planes for Cubic Structures	903	(1)
D Conversion Factors and Constants	903	(1)
E Twinning Elements of Several of the More Important Twinning Modes	904	(1)
F Selected Values of Intrinsic Stacking-Fault Energy γI, Twin-Boundary Energy γT, Grain-Boundary Energy γG, and Crystal-Vapor Surface Energy γ for Various Materials in Ergs/Cm2	904	(1)
G The International System of Units	905	(7)
List of Important Symbols	912	(2)
List of Greek Letter Symbols	914	(1)
Index	915