Plastics Packaging: Properties, Processing, Applications, and Regulations

by Hernandez, Ruben J.; Selke, Susan E. M.; Culter, John D.

• ISBN13: 9781569903032
• ISBN10: 1569903034
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2000-05-01
• Publisher: Hanser Gardner Pubns

Summary

A textbook/self-study guide to the properties, selection, processing, and applications of polymers. Includes an introduction to basic terms and concepts, and discussion of several important related topics.

Table of Contents

Preface	v
Introduction	1	(6)
Historic Note	1	(1)
Role of Plastics in Packaging	2	(4)
Book Structure	6	(1)
Basic Concepts and Definitions	7	(14)
Terminology	7	(5)
Macromolecule	7	(1)
Polymer	8	(1)
Plastic	8	(2)
Monomer	10	(1)
Constitutional Unit	10	(1)
Homopolymer	11	(1)
Copolymer	11	(1)
Polymer Nomenclature	12	(1)
Interatomic and Intermolecular Forces in Polymers	13	(4)
Interatomic Forces	13	(1)
Covalent Bonds	13	(1)
Ionic Bonds	14	(1)
Intermolecular and Intramolecular Forces	15	(1)
Dispersion Forces	16	(1)
Induction Forces	16	(1)
Dipole Forces	17	(1)
Hydrogen Bonds	17	(1)
Properties Determined by Chemical Composition	17	(1)
Categorization of Plastics	18	(3)
Study Questions	19	(2)
Polymer Structure and Properties	21	(68)
Introduction	21	(1)
Molecular Architecture	21	(3)
Linear Polymers	22	(1)
Branched Polymers	22	(1)
Cross-Linked Polymers	23	(1)
Copolymer Structure	24	(5)
Random Copolymers	25	(1)
Alternating Copolymers	25	(1)
Block Copolymers	26	(1)
Graft Copolymers	27	(1)
Combinations of Copolymer Types	28	(1)
Chain Polymerization, Addition Polymers	29	(8)
Addition or Chain Polymerization	29	(1)
Vinyl Polymers	30	(2)
Free-Radical Polymerization	32	(1)
Initiation	32	(1)
Propagation	33	(1)
Termination	33	(1)
Polyethylene Polymerization Processes	33	(3)
Other Addition Polymerization Mechanisms	36	(1)
Molecular Configuration and Conformation	37	(1)
Head-to-Head and Head-to-Tail Configurations of Vinyl Polymers	37	(2)
Stereochemistry	39	(2)
Step Polymerization, Condensation Polymers	41	(3)
Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution	44	(10)
Degree of Polymerization	45	(1)
Molecular Mass (Weight) and Molecular Weight Distribution	45	(1)
Number Average Molecular Weight	46	(1)
Weight Average Molecular Weight	47	(3)
Other Molecular Weight Averages	50	(1)
Determination of MWD	50	(1)
Effect of Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution on Flow and Mechanical Properties	51	(3)
Polymer Morphology	54	(9)
Crystallinity	55	(5)
Polymer Orientation	60	(1)
Degree of Crystallinity	61	(2)
Thermal Properties	63	(10)
Melting Temperature	63	(1)
Glass Transition Temperature	63	(3)
Measuring Tg	66	(2)
Variables Affecting Tg	68	(1)
Other Thermal Transitions	69	(1)
Heat Capacity	70	(1)
Heat of Fusion	70	(1)
Thermal Conductivity	70	(1)
Thermal Expansion Coefficient	71	(1)
Other Dimensional Changes	72	(1)
Dimensional Stability	72	(1)
Mechanical Properties	73	(4)
Tensile Properties	73	(3)
Tear Strength	76	(1)
Impact and Bursting Strength	76	(1)
Other Mechanical Properties	76	(1)
Barrier Properties	77	(2)
Diffusion Coefficient	78	(1)
Solubility Coefficient	78	(1)
Permeability Coefficient	78	(1)
Surfaces and Adhesion	79	(3)
Surface Tension	79	(1)
Wettability	79	(1)
Adhesive Bond Strength	80	(1)
Cohesive Bond Strength	80	(1)
Blocking	80	(1)
Friction	81	(1)
Heat Sealing	81	(1)
Optical Characteristics	82	(2)
Gloss	82	(1)
Haze	83	(1)
Transparency and Opacity	83	(1)
Electrical Properties	84	(1)
Plastics Identification Using IR Spectrophotometry	84	(5)
References	86	(1)
Study Questions	86	(3)
Major Plastics in Packaging	89	(46)
Branched Polyethylenes	89	(6)
Low Density Polyethylene	91	(1)
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)	92	(1)
Ethylene Acrylic Acid (EAA)	93	(1)
Ionomers	94	(1)
Linear Polyethylenes	95	(7)
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)	96	(2)
Linear Low Density Polyethylene (LLDPE)	98	(1)
Metallocene Polymers	99	(3)
Property Trends in the Polyethylene Family	102	(1)
Polypropylene (PP)	102	(4)
PP Homopolymer	104	(1)
Random Copolymer Polypropylene	104	(2)
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)	106	(2)
Vinylidene Chloride Copolymers (PVDC)	108	(1)
Polystyrene (PS)	109	(1)
Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVOH) and Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol (EVOH)	110	(3)
Polyvinyl Alcohol	110	(1)
Ethylene Vinyl Alcohol	111	(2)
Nylon	113	(2)
Polyester	115	(4)
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)	115	(2)
Glycol Modified PET, Other PET Copolymers, and PET Blends	117	(1)
Polyethylene Naphthalate (PEN)	118	(1)
Polycarbonate (PC)	119	(1)
Fluoropolymers	120	(1)
Styrene-Butadiene Copolymers	121	(1)
Acrylonitrile Copolymers	121	(2)
Liquid Crystal Polymers	123	(1)
Conductive Polymers	124	(1)
Thermoplastic Elastomers	124	(1)
Thermosets	125	(2)
Cellophane and Cellulosic Plastics	127	(3)
Cellophane	128	(1)
Cellulosic Plastics	128	(2)
Polymer Blends	130	(5)
References	131	(1)
Study Questions	131	(4)
Additives and Compounding	135	(22)
Introduction	135	(1)
Compounding	136	(1)
Antioxidants	137	(3)
Heat Stabilizers	140	(1)
UV Stabilizers	141	(1)
Additives to Modify Surface Attractions	142	(3)
Antiblocking Agents	143	(1)
Slip Agents	143	(1)
Antislip Agents	144	(1)
Lubricants	144	(1)
Mold Release Agents	145	(1)
Colorants	145	(3)
Dyes	146	(1)
Organic Pigments	146	(1)
Inorganic Pigments	146	(1)
Specialty Pigments	146	(2)
Colorants and the FDA	148	(1)
Antifogging Agents	148	(1)
Nucleating Agents	149	(1)
Antistatic Agents	150	(1)
Plasticizers	151	(1)
Oxygen Scavengers, Desiccants and Fragrance Enhancers	152	(2)
Fillers and Reinforcers	154	(1)
Antimicrobials or Biocides	155	(1)
Other Additives	155	(2)
Study Questions	156	(1)
Adhesion, Adhesives and Heat Sealing	157	(28)
Adhesion	157	(1)
Adhesives	158	(1)
Adhesive and Cohesive Bond Strength	159	(6)
Adhesive Bond Strength	160	(1)
Surface Tension	160	(1)
Solubility Parameter	161	(2)
Viscosity	163	(1)
Estimation of Adhesive Bond Strength	164	(1)
Cohesive Bond Strength	164	(1)
Types of Adhesives	165	(4)
Reactive Adhesives	165	(1)
Hot Melt Adhesives	166	(1)
Solvent-Borne Adhesives	166	(1)
Water-Borne Adhesives	167	(1)
Pressure Sensitive and Remoistenable Adhesives	168	(1)
Cold-Seal Adhesives	169	(1)
Application of Adhesives	169	(1)
Adhesive Terminology	170	(1)
Adhesive Additives	171	(1)
Heat Sealing	172	(13)
Sealing Methods	173	(1)
Bar or Thermal Sealing	173	(1)
Impulse Sealing	174	(1)
Band Sealing	175	(1)
Hot Wire or Hot Knife Sealing	175	(1)
Ultrasonic Sealing	176	(1)
Friction Sealing	176	(1)
Hot Gas Sealing and Contact Sealing	176	(1)
Radiant Sealing	177	(1)
Dielectric Sealing	177	(1)
Magnetic Sealing	177	(1)
Induction Sealing	177	(1)
Solvent Sealing	178	(1)
Heat Conduction in Multilayer Flexible Materials	179	(1)
Hot Tack	180	(1)
Heat Seal Jaws	180	(1)
Heat Seal Failure Modes	181	(1)
Evaluation of Seals in Flexible Packaging Materials	182	(1)
References	183	(1)
Study Questions	183	(2)
Extrusion, Film and Sheet	185	(32)
Extrusion and Extruders	185	(9)
Hopper and Feed Port	187	(1)
Feed Section	187	(1)
Compression Section	188	(1)
Metering Section	189	(1)
Mixing Devices	189	(1)
Extruder and Screw Design and Size	190	(1)
Dies	191	(1)
Melt Filters	191	(1)
Drive Mechanisms and Screw Speeds	191	(1)
Special Designs	192	(1)
Extrusion Temperatures	192	(2)
Extrusion Pressures	194	(1)
Cast Film and Sheet	194	(5)
Cold Cast or Chill Roll Cast Process	194	(1)
Roll Stack and Calendering Processes	195	(1)
Quench Tank or Water Bath Process	195	(1)
Nip Rolls and Winding	196	(1)
Gauge Control	196	(1)
Orientation	197	(1)
Cast Film Dies	198	(1)
Blown Film	199	(9)
Blown Film Extrusion	201	(1)
Blown Film Dies	201	(2)
Air Rings and Internal Bubble Cooling (IBC)	203	(2)
Collapsing Frames	205	(1)
Nips	206	(1)
Slitting and Winding	207	(1)
Double-Bubble Process	208	(1)
Stretch and Shrink Wrap	208	(2)
Stretch Wrap	209	(1)
Shrink Wrap	209	(1)
Film and Sheet Coextrusion	210	(3)
Surface Treatment	213	(1)
Yield of Film	214	(1)
Testing and Evaluation of Films	215	(2)
References	215	(1)
Study Questions	215	(2)
Converting, Lamination and Coating	217	(12)
Extrusion Coating and Laminating	217	(3)
Hot Melt Lamination or Coating	220	(1)
Adhesive Lamination	221	(2)
Thermal Laminating	223	(1)
Metallized Film	223	(2)
Silicon Oxide Films	225	(1)
Other Inorganic Barrier Coatings	226	(1)
Building Multilayer Structures	226	(3)
References	227	(1)
Study Questions	227	(2)
Flexible Packaging	229	(10)
Characteristics of Flexible Packaging	229	(2)
Pouch Styles	231	(2)
Pillow Pouches	231	(1)
Three-side Seal Pouches	232	(1)
Four-side Seal Pouches	232	(1)
Stand-up Pouches	232	(1)
Forming Pouches	233	(2)
Bulk and Heavy-Duty Bags	235	(1)
Retort Pouches	236	(1)
Bag-in-Box	237	(2)
References	237	(1)
Study Questions	237	(2)
Thermoforming	239	(20)
Introduction	239	(1)
Heating the Sheet	240	(2)
Temperature Selection	240	(1)
Radiative Heating	240	(2)
Forming the Sheet	242	(10)
Basic Methods	242	(1)
Drape Forming	243	(1)
Vacuum Forming	243	(1)
Pressure Forming	244	(1)
Sheet Deformation	244	(2)
Thermoforming Variations	246	(1)
Plug-Assist Thermoforming	246	(1)
Solid Phase Pressure Forming	246	(1)
Bubble or Billow Forming	247	(1)
Vacuum Snap-Back Thermoforming	247	(1)
Matched Mold Forming	248	(1)
Scrapless Thermoforming	248	(1)
In-Line Thermoforming and Melt-to-Mold Thermoforming	249	(1)
Twin-Sheet Thermoforming	249	(1)
Skin Packaging	250	(1)
Selection of Thermoforming Method	251	(1)
Trimming the Sheet	252	(1)
Part and Mold Design	252	(5)
Prototype Molds	253	(3)
Production Molds	256	(1)
Thermoform-Fill-Seal Systems	257	(2)
References	257	(1)
Study Questions	257	(2)
Injection Molding, Closures, Rotational Molding, Compression Molding, and Tubes	259	(16)
Injection Molding	259	(7)
Injection Molding Machines	259	(1)
Injection Mold Units	260	(1)
Polymer Flow	261	(3)
Removal of Molded Parts	264	(1)
Hot Runner Molds	265	(1)
Venting	265	(1)
Applications of Injection Molding	266	(1)
Closures	266	(5)
Friction Closures	267	(1)
Snap-fit Closures	267	(1)
Threaded Closures	268	(2)
Specialty Closures	270	(1)
Fitments and Overcaps	270	(1)
Rotational Molding	271	(1)
Compression Molding	271	(1)
Plastic Tubes	272	(3)
References	273	(1)
Study Questions	273	(2)
Blow Molding and Bottles	275	(24)
Blow Molding	275	(1)
Extrusion Blow Molding	276	(7)
Basic Extrusion Blow Molding Process	276	(2)
Parison Dimensions	278	(1)
Extrusion Blow Molding Variations	278	(1)
Container Designs	279	(1)
Die Shaping	280	(2)
Programmed Parison	282	(1)
Injection Blow Molding	283	(2)
Stretch Blow Molding	285	(2)
Coextruded Bottles	287	(2)
Coinjection Blow Molded Bottles	289	(1)
Foam Blow Molding	290	(1)
Blow Molds	291	(1)
In-Mold Labeling	292	(1)
Aseptic Blow Molding	293	(1)
Bottle Modifications	293	(2)
Heat Setting	293	(1)
Vacuum Panels	294	(1)
Crystallized Finishes	294	(1)
Surface Treatment	295	(1)
Flame Treatment	295	(1)
Coatings	295	(1)
Fluorination	296	(1)
Sulfonation	296	(1)
Dimensions and Tolerances for Plastic Bottles	296	(3)
References	298	(1)
Study Questions	298	(1)
Foams, Cushioning and Distribution Packaging	299	(14)
Foams	299	(5)
Polystyrene Foam	300	(1)
Expanded Polystyrene Foam (EPS)	300	(1)
Extruded Polystyrene Foam	301	(1)
Styrene Copolymer Foams	302	(1)
Polyolefin Foams	302	(1)
Polyurethane Foams and Foam-in-Place Systems	303	(1)
Starch-Based Foams	304	(1)
Non-Foam Plastic Cushioning Systems	304	(1)
Cushioning	305	(2)
Thermal Insulation of Foams	307	(2)
Plastic Pallets	309	(1)
Plastic Drums and Other Shipping Containers	309	(1)
Packaging for Electrostatic Discharge Protection	310	(3)
References	311	(1)
Study Questions	311	(2)
Mass Transfer in Polymeric Packaging Systems: Sorption, Diffusion, Permeation and Shelf Life	313	(40)
Introduction	313	(1)
Physical and Chemical Basis for Interactions	314	(1)
Types of Interactions	315	(3)
Permeation	315	(1)
Migration	316	(1)
Sorption	317	(1)
Thermodynamic Equilibrium	318	(4)
Gas Phase Chemical Activity	319	(1)
Solubility	319	(2)
Partition Coefficient	321	(1)
Diffusion	322	(1)
Steady State Diffusion Across a Single Sheet: Permeability	323	(5)
Variables Affecting Permeability	328	(10)
Chemical Structure of the Polymer	328	(1)
Chemical Structure of the Permeant Molecule	328	(3)
Effect of Temperature	331	(3)
Effect of Humidity	334	(1)
Physical Structure of the Polymer	334	(3)
Effect of Permeant Concentration	337	(1)
Experimental Determination of Permeability	338	(2)
Multilayer Structures	340	(3)
Applications of the Permeability Equation	343	(1)
Shelf Life Estimation	344	(9)
References	350	(1)
Study Questions	350	(3)
U.S. Regulations and Plastic Packaging	353	(22)
Introduction	353	(1)
The U.S. Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act	353	(1)
Medical Packaging Regulations	354	(2)
Drug Packaging	354	(1)
Medical Device Packaging	355	(1)
Food Packaging Regulations	356	(10)
What is a Food Additive?	356	(1)
Information on Nylon Available in the CFR	357	(1)
Identification of Relevant Regulations for Fabrication of an Adhesive-laminated Plastic Bag	358	(1)
Acceptable Amounts of Migration	358	(1)
Threshold of Regulation	359	(2)
Food Processing Equipment and the Housewares Exclusion	361	(1)
Determining the Conditions of Use	361	(1)
Multilayer Food Packages	362	(1)
GRAS and Prior-Sanctioned Additives	362	(1)
Use of Recycled Plastics for Food Packaging	363	(2)
Role of Manufacturers and Users in Determining FDA Compliance	365	(1)
Cosmetic Packaging Regulations	366	(1)
State Laws and Regulations	366	(6)
Degradable Beverage Carriers	366	(1)
``Model Toxics'' Legislation	367	(2)
Resin Coding on Plastic Bottles	369	(1)
Recycling Rate/Recycled Content Requirements	370	(1)
Oregon	371	(1)
California	371	(1)
Wisconsin	371	(1)
Potential Future Issues	372	(3)
Study Questions	373	(2)
Environmental Considerations	375	(28)
Introduction	375	(1)
Solid Waste Concerns	376	(4)
Source Reduction and Reuse	380	(1)
Recycling of Plastic Packaging	380	(9)
Collection of Packaging Materials for Recycling	382	(1)
Recycling Rates for Plastics Packaging	383	(1)
Processing of Collected Plastics	384	(1)
Size Reduction	385	(1)
Cleaning	385	(1)
Sorting	386	(1)
Extrusion and Pelletizing	387	(1)
Feedstock Recycling	388	(1)
PET Recycling	389	(1)
HDPE Recycling	390	(2)
LDPE Recycling	392	(1)
Recycling of PS, PP, and PVC	392	(1)
Recycling of Commingled Plastics	393	(1)
Biodegradable Plastics	394	(3)
Polyesters	395	(1)
Starch-Based Plastics	395	(1)
Lactic Acid Plastics	396	(1)
Other Biodegradable Plastics	396	(1)
Other Environmental Concerns	397	(2)
Resource Depletion and Energy Efficiency	397	(1)
Pollution	397	(1)
Climate Change	398	(1)
Lifecycle Assessment	399	(4)
References	400	(1)
Study Questions	401	(2)
Additional Reading	403	(6)
Index	409