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9780205075942

Political Science : An Introduction

by ; ; ;
  • ISBN13:

    9780205075942

  • ISBN10:

    0205075940

  • Edition: 12th
  • Format: Paperback
  • Copyright: 2011-02-16
  • Publisher: Pearson
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Supplemental Materials

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Summary

This new edition of Psychology has undergone a major revision with thousands of new references and dozens of new topics added. New co-author Linda Brannon has worked closely with Lester Lefton to rewrite, reorganize, and provide a stronger focus on gender and diversity issues, as well as a new emphasis on the process of research. Four major themes are recurrent in the book: the integration of diversity, the importance of biological/evolutionary topics, the complex relationship between nature and nurture, and the importance of readers' ability to apply and critique basic psychological principles within their own lives. For anyone interested in psychology.

Author Biography

Michael G. Roskin is Professor Emeritus of Political Science at Lycoming College.

Table of Contents

Prefacep. xii
About the Authorsp. 1
What Is Psychology?p. 2
How Accurate Is the Image of Psychology?p. 4
Defining Psychologyp. 5
How Did Psychology Begin?p. 5
The Early Traditionsp. 6
The Behaviorist Revolutionp. 8
Challenges to Behaviorismp. 8
What Trends Currently Shape Psychology?p. 10
The Changing Face of Psychologyp. 10
Major Perspectives in Psychologyp. 10
Brain and Behavior: New Ways to Study Brain-Behavior Interactionsp. 14
Current Trends in Psychologyp. 15
Who Are These People Called Psychologists?p. 17
Types of Mental Health Practitionersp. 17
What Psychologists Dop. 18
Point...Counterpoint: Should Psychologists Be Allowed to Write Prescriptions?p. 19
Making Psychology a Careerp. 20
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 21
How Should You Use This Textbook?p. 23
Four Recurring Themes in Psychologyp. 23
Psychology in Action: Using Psychological Knowledge to Become a Better Studentp. 24
Summary and Reviewp. 26
The Science of Psychologyp. 28
What Makes Psychology a Science?p. 30
Three Principles of Scientific Endeavorp. 30
The Scientific Method in Psychologyp. 32
Psychology in Action: Thinking Critically about Research Findingsp. 34
What Research Methods Do Psychologists Use?p. 35
The Experimental Methodp. 35
Introduction to Research Basics: Sleep and Memory-An Experimental Approachp. 38
Descriptive Research Methodsp. 38
How Do Psychologists Evaluate Their Research Findings?p. 43
Using Statistics to Evaluate Researchp. 43
Avoiding Bias in the Research Processp. 47
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 49
What Ethical Principles Guide Psychology Research?p. 52
Point...Counterpoint: Should Nonhuman Animals Be Used in Research?p. 53
Summary and Reviewp. 54
Neuroscience: The Brain and Behaviorp. 56
How Is the Nervous System Organized?p. 58
The Cellular Levelp. 58
Divisions of Nervous Systemp. 65
The Brainp. 68
How Does the Brain Function?p. 72
Monitoring Neural Activityp. 73
Brain Specializationp. 75
Introduction to Research Basics: Correlation Is Not Causationp. 76
Plasticity and Changep. 79
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 80
What Effects Do Hormones Have on Behavior?p. 81
How Do Genetic Factors Affect Behavior?p. 83
The Issue of Nature versus Nurturep. 83
The Basics of Geneticsp. 84
How Genes Affect Behaviorp. 85
From Genetics to Genomicsp. 87
Psychology in Action: Genetic Counselingp. 88
Does Our Evolutionary History Influence Our Current Behavior?p. 89
Natural Selectionp. 89
Adaptations in Humansp. 90
Controversies about Evolutionary Psychologyp. 91
Point...Counterpoint: Are Men Sexually Promiscuous by Nature and Women Sexually Selective?p. 92
Summary and Reviewp. 93
Child Developmentp. 97
What Are the Central Issues of Development?p. 98
Issues in Developmental Psychologyp. 98
Research Designsp. 100
How Does Physical Development Proceed?p. 102
Prenatal Developmentp. 102
Harmful Environmental Effectsp. 103
Newborns Are Ready to Experience the Worldp. 104
Point...Counterpoint: Should Ritalin Use among Children Be So Widespread?p. 105
Introduction to Research Basics: Observing an Infant's Gazep. 109
Brain and Behavior: Critical Periods in Brain Developmentp. 110
How Does Thought Develop?p. 111
Jean Piaget's Insightsp. 111
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: An Alternative to Piagetp. 118
Theory of Mindp. 119
Thought in a Social Contextp. 120
How Do Social and Emotional Development Proceed?p. 121
Attachment: The Ties That Bindp. 121
Temperamentp. 125
Moral Reasoningp. 127
What Environmental Factors Are Important for Social Development?p. 130
Early Social Development and Child Rearingp. 131
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 133
Gender Rolesp. 134
Erik Erikson and the Beginning of the Search for Selfp. 134
Psychology in Action: Gender Stereotypesp. 135
Summary and Reviewp. 137
Adolescence and Adulthoodp. 140
How Do Adolescents Bridge the Gap to Adulthood?p. 142
Viewing Adolescence in Multiple Contextsp. 142
Introduction to Research Basics: Does Teen Gambling Predict Adult Problems with Gambling?p. 144
Physical Development in Adolescencep. 144
Brain and Behavior: The Prevalence of Eating Disordersp. 146
Cognitive Development in Adolescencep. 147
Emotional and Social Development in Adolescencep. 149
Point...Counterpoint: Should Adolescents Be Able to Make Life-or-Death Decisions about Their Own Health?p. 151
Who Am I? The Search for Gender Identityp. 153
Friendship and Sexual Behaviorp. 155
Is Adulthood a Time of Stability or Change?p. 157
Physical Changes in Adulthoodp. 158
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 161
Cognitive Changes in Adulthoodp. 162
Social and Personality Development in Adulthoodp. 163
Stage Theories of Adult Developmentp. 163
Psychology in Action: The Legacy of Divorcep. 166
Do We Grow Older and Wiser in Late Adulthood?p. 168
Myths, Realities, and Stereotypes about Agingp. 170
Health in Late Adulthoodp. 170
The Final Transition: Dyingp. 173
Summary and Reviewp. 174
Sensation and Perceptionp. 176
How Are Stimulation and Perception Linked?p. 178
The Difference between Sensation and Perceptionp. 178
Psychophysicsp. 179
Selective Attentionp. 180
Point...Counterpoint: Does Subliminal Persuasion Work?p. 181
Restricted Environmental Stimulationp. 182
Introduction to Research Basics: Have You Ever Smelled a Color?p. 183
Inattentional Blindnessp. 184
How Do We See the World?p. 185
The Structures of the Visual Systemp. 186
The Electrochemical Basis of Perceptionp. 189
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 190
Brain and Behavior: Geography and Dyslexiap. 193
Color Visionp. 194
How Do We Perceive Form and Substance?p. 198
Perception of Form: Constancyp. 198
Depth Perceptionp. 199
Illusionsp. 202
Prosopagnosia: The Inability to Recognize Facesp. 204
Gestalt Laws of Organizationp. 205
How Do We Perceive Sounds?p. 207
What Is Sound?p. 207
The Structure of the Earp. 208
Theories of Hearingp. 210
Sound Localizationp. 210
Hearing Impairmentsp. 211
Psychology in Action: Cochlear Implants-A Spirited Debatep. 212
Which Senses Are the Least Understood?p. 213
Tastep. 213
Smellp. 214
What Is the Relationship between Touch and Pain?p. 216
Touchp. 217
Painp. 218
How Do We Keep Our Balance?p. 221
Does Extrasensory Perception Exist?p. 222
Summary and Reviewp. 223
Consciousnessp. 226
What Is Consciousness?p. 228
Defining Consciousnessp. 228
Theories of Consciousnessp. 229
What Happens When We Sleep?p. 231
The Sleep-Wakefulness Cycle: Circadian Rhythmsp. 231
Sleep Stages: REM and NREM Sleepp. 233
Sleep Deprivationp. 236
Why Do We Sleep?p. 237
Is There a Sleep Switch?p. 238
Sleep Disordersp. 239
Psychology in Action: Getting a Good Night's Sleepp. 240
What Are Dreams and What Do They Mean?p. 241
What Is a Dream?p. 241
The Content of Dreamsp. 242
Dream Theoriesp. 242
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 244
Introduction to Research Basics: The Importance of REM Sleep for Learning and Memoryp. 247
Is It Possible to Control Consciousness by Using Biofeedback, Hypnosis, or Meditation?p. 248
Biofeedbackp. 249
Hypnosisp. 249
Point...Counterpoint: Is Hypnosis an Altered State of Consciousness?p. 250
Mediationp. 252
How Do Drugs Alter Consciousness?p. 253
Psychoactive Drugsp. 253
Drug Use and Abusep. 257
Brain and Behavior: Drug Addictionp. 260
Summary and Reviewp. 262
Learningp. 264
What Type of Learning Is Pavlovian, or Classical, Conditioning?p. 266
Terms and Proceduresp. 267
Classical Conditioning in Humansp. 269
Higher-Order Conditioningp. 270
What Are the Key Variables in Classical Conditioning?p. 271
Strength, Timing, and Frequencyp. 271
Predictabilityp. 272
Extinction and Spontaneous Recoveryp. 272
Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discriminationp. 274
Psychology in Action: Managing Test Anxietyp. 275
Classical Conditioning in Daily Lifep. 275
Brain and Behavior: Conditioning and Drug Usep. 278
Pavlov's Understanding Reinterpretedp. 278
What Type of Learning Is Operant Conditioning?p. 279
The Pioneers: E. L. Thorndike and B. F. Skinnerp. 280
Reinforcement: A Consequence That Strengthens a Responsep. 280
Two Reinforcement Strategies: Positive and Negativep. 281
The Skinner Box and Shapingp. 283
Punishment: A Consequence That Weakens a Responsep. 283
What Are the Key Variables in Operant Conditioning?p. 287
Strength, Timing, and Frequencyp. 287
Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discriminationp. 290
Extinction and Spontaneous Recoveryp. 290
Operant Conditioning in Daily Lifep. 291
Can Learning Occur through Observation?p. 294
The Power of Modelingp. 295
Key Processes in Observational Learningp. 296
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 297
Observational Learning in Daily Lifep. 298
Other Types of Cognitive Learningp. 298
Point...Counterpoint: Are There Gender Differences Related to Forming Cognitive Maps?p. 300
What Is the Biological Basis for Learning?p. 301
Are Evolutionary Theory and Learning Theory Incompatible?p. 301
Electrical Brain Stimulation and Reinforcementp. 302
Brain Changes and Learningp. 302
Summary and Reviewp. 304
Memoryp. 306
How Does the Memory Process Begin?p. 308
The Brain as Information Processorp. 308
Encodingp. 309
Levels of Processingp. 309
Neuroscience and Encodingp. 311
What Are the Types of Memory Storage?p. 312
Sensory Memoryp. 312
Short-Term Storagep. 313
Long-Term Memoryp. 316
Neuroscience and Storagep. 319
Brain and Behavior: The Aging Brain and Alzheimer's Diseasep. 321
What Influences Memory Retrieval?p. 323
Retention: Measures of Retrievalp. 323
Retrieval Success and Failure: Encoding Specificityp. 324
Introduction to Research Basics: Mood and Memoryp. 325
What Facilitates Retrieval?p. 326
Flashbulb Memoriesp. 328
Gender and Memoryp. 329
Culture and Memoryp. 330
What Causes People to Forget?p. 331
Early Studiesp. 331
Key Causes of Forgettingp. 332
Special Types of Forgettingp. 335
Psychology in Action: Improving the Justice Systemp. 336
Point...Counterpoint: Are Recovered Memories Real?p. 337
Neuroscience and Forgetting: Studies of Amnesiap. 338
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 339
Summary and Reviewp. 340
Cognitive Psychologyp. 342
What Is Cognitive Psychology?p. 344
How Do We Form Concepts and Solve Problems?p. 345
Concept Formationp. 345
Problem Solvingp. 346
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 348
Barriers to Problem Solvingp. 348
Avoid Barriers: Be a Critical Thinkerp. 350
Creative Problem Solvingp. 351
How Do We Reason and Make Decisions?p. 353
Uncertainty: Estimating Probabilitiesp. 353
Barriers to Sound Decision Makingp. 354
Culture and Reasoningp. 355
Evolution and Reasoningp. 356
Brain and Behavior: Is the Ability to Acquire Knowledge Built into the Brain?p. 357
What Does Artificial Intelligence Reveal about Cognition?p. 359
The Computer as Information Processorp. 359
Point...Counterpoint: Can Computers Think?p. 360
Neural Networksp. 360
Roboticsp. 362
What Is the Structure of Language?p. 363
Language and Gender Stereotypesp. 364
Thought, Culture, and Languagep. 365
Linguisticsp. 366
Language Structurep. 366
Introduction to Research Basics: Acquiring A First Languagep. 367
The Biological and Evolutionary Basis of Languagep. 369
Psychology in Action: Learing English as a Second Languagep. 370
How Do We Acquire Language?p. 372
Learning Theoriesp. 372
Biological Theoriesp. 372
Do Chimpanzees Use Language?p. 373
Do Dolphins or Whales Use Language?p. 375
Social Interaction Theory: A Little Bit of Eachp. 375
Summary and Reviewp. 377
Intelligencep. 380
What Are the Origins and History of Psychological Testing?p. 382
Binet's Intelligence Testp. 382
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scalep. 382
The Wechsler Scalesp. 383
Group Intelligence Testsp. 386
What Is Intelligence?p. 386
Theories of Intelligence-One Ability or Many?p. 387
Brain and Behavior: Big Brainsp. 389
Emotions-A Different Kind of Intelligence?p. 392
How Do Psychologists Develop Tests?p. 394
Developing an Intelligence Testp. 394
Reliabilityp. 395
Validityp. 396
Introduction to Research Basics: Seeing What You Expect to Seep. 398
How Do Biological and Environmental Factors Contribute to Intelligence?p. 399
Point...Counterpoint: Are There Racial Differences in Intelligence?p. 400
Biological Factors and Intelligencep. 401
Environmental and Cultural Factors in Intelligencep. 403
The Interaction of Biological and Environmental Factorsp. 404
Psychology in Action: How to Increase Intelligencep. 406
What Is the Impact of Having an Exceptional IQ?p. 407
Giftednessp. 407
Intellectual Disabilityp. 408
Special Education: The IDEAp. 409
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 410
Summary and Reviewp. 412
Motivation and Emotionp. 414
What Is Motivation?p. 416
Definition of Motivationp. 416
Theories of Motivationp. 416
How Does Motivation Affect Behavior?p. 425
Hunger: A Physiological Needp. 425
Sexual Behavior: Physiology plus Thoughtp. 429
Introduction to Resarch Basics: Sex Surveysp. 432
Point...Counterpoint: What Is the Underlying Basis of Sexual Orientation?p. 434
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 435
Social Needsp. 435
What Is Emotion?p. 439
Definition of Emotionp. 439
Theories of Emotionp. 440
Brain and Behavior: Experiencing and Recognizing Fearp. 442
How Does Emotion Affect Behavior?p. 447
Culture and Emotionp. 447
Gender and Emotionp. 448
Can We Control Emotions?p. 449
Psychology in Action: Anger Managementp. 450
Summary and Reviewp. 451
Personality and Its Assessmentp. 454
What Is Personality?p. 456
Definition of Personalityp. 456
Personality in the Cultural Contextp. 456
What Is the Psychodynamic Approach to Personality?p. 458
The Psychoanalytic Theory of Sigmund Freudp. 458
Point...Counterpoint: Is Freud Still Relevant to Psychology?p. 465
Adler and Individual Psychologyp. 465
Jung and Analytical Psychologyp. 467
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 468
Can Personality Be Learned?p. 470
The Power of Learningp. 470
Skinner and Behavioral Analysis: Acquiring a Personalityp. 470
What Are Trait and Type Theories of Personality?p. 471
Introduction to Research Basics: Are Personality Traits Stable?p. 472
Allport's Personal Disposition Theoryp. 472
Cattell's Trait Theoryp. 473
Eysenck's Factor Theoryp. 473
The Five-Factor Modelp. 474
Brain and Behavior: The Genetics of Personality Traitsp. 475
What Characterizes the Humanistic Approach to Personality?p. 476
Maslow and Self-Actualizationp. 476
Rogers and Self Theoryp. 477
Positive Psychologyp. 478
What Is the Cognitive Approach to Personality?p. 480
Key Cognitive Conceptsp. 480
Kelly and Personal Constructsp. 480
Rotter and Locus of Controlp. 481
Bandura and Self-Efficacyp. 482
Psychology in Action: Seeing Violence, Doing Violencep. 483
Mischel's Cognitive-Affective Personality Systemp. 484
How Do Psychologists Assess Personality?p. 486
Projective Testsp. 486
Personality Inventoriesp. 487
Summary and Reviewp. 490
Social Psychologyp. 494
What Is the Social Self?p. 496
The Self in Social Psychologyp. 496
Thinking about Self and Othersp. 497
Point...Counterpoint: Is High Self-Esteem Always Desirable?p. 498
How Are Attitudes Related to Behavior?p. 502
Dimensions of Attitudesp. 502
Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?p. 503
Does Behavior Determine Attitudes?p. 503
How Does Attitude Change Occur?p. 505
How Do People Relate to Each Other?p. 508
Attraction and Relationship Formationp. 508
Aggression and Violencep. 513
Prosocial Behaviorp. 517
What Are the Effects of Identifying with a Group?p. 519
Group Performancep. 520
Identifying as a Group Memberp. 523
Introduction to Research Basics: Stereotypes and Academic Performancep. 525
Brain and Behavior: Bias in the Brainp. 527
How Do Others Affect the Individual?p. 528
Conformityp. 528
Compliancep. 529
Obedience to Authorityp. 531
Psychology in Action: Resistance is Not Futilep. 532
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 534
Summary and Reviewp. 535
Stress and Health Psychologyp. 538
What Is Stress?p. 540
Definition of Stressp. 540
Sources of Stressp. 545
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 547
Introduction to Research Basics: Racism and Reactivityp. 548
Responses to Stressp. 551
Stress and Healthp. 552
Brain and Behavior: Sick of Final Exams, or Do Final Exams Make You Sick?p. 555
How Do People Cope with Stress?p. 556
What Is Coping?p. 556
Factors That Influence Copingp. 556
Coping Strategiesp. 558
Psychology in Action: Coping with Campus Lifep. 562
What Is Health Psychology?p. 563
How Does Behavior Affect Health and Illness?p. 563
Point...Counterpoint: Does Dieting Lead to Better Health?p. 565
The Psychology of Being Sickp. 567
Adopting a Healtheir Lifestylep. 569
Health Psychology and the Futurep. 571
Summary and Reviewp. 572
Psychological Disordersp. 574
What Is Abnormal Behavior?p. 576
A Definitionp. 576
Perspectives on Abnormalityp. 577
Diagnosing Psychopathology: The DSMp. 580
Introduction to Research Basics: Cross-Cultural Factors in Diagnosis and Treatmentp. 583
What Are Anxiety Disorders?p. 584
Defining Anxietyp. 585
Generalized Anxiety Disorderp. 585
Panic Disorderp. 585
Phobic Disordersp. 586
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorderp. 587
What Are Mood Disorders?p. 589
Depressive Disordersp. 589
Causes of Major Depressive Disorderp. 591
Bipolar Disorderp. 594
What Are Dissociative Disorders?p. 595
Dissociative Amnesiap. 596
Dissociative Identity Disorder: Multiple Personalitiesp. 596
Point...Counterpoint: Is Multiple Personality Disorder a Real Mental Disorder?p. 597
What Is Schizophrenia?p. 598
Essential Characteristics of Schizophrenic Disordersp. 598
Types of Schizophreniap. 600
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 601
Brain And Behavior: "It's All in Your Head"p. 602
Causes of Schizophreniap. 603
What Are Personality Disorders?p. 605
How Are Violence and Mental Disorders Related?p. 608
Diagnoses Associated with Violencep. 608
Violence as a Risk for Developing Mental Disordersp. 610
Psychology in Action: Preventing Suicidep. 611
Summary and Reviewp. 613
Therapyp. 616
What Is Psychotherapy, and What Types Are Available?p. 618
Is Psychotherapy Necessary and Effective?p. 619
Which Therapy, Which Therapist?p. 621
Are There Common Factors among Therapists?p. 622
Introduction to Research Basics: Prevention of Alcohol Abuse at Collegep. 623
What Roles Do Culture and Gender Play in Therapy?p. 625
Has Managed Care Changed Therapy?p. 627
Psychology In Action: Choosing a Therapistp. 628
How Do Psychodynamic Therapies Work?p. 630
Goals of Psychoanalysisp. 630
Techniques of Psychoanalysisp. 631
Psychology in the Media: A Critical Lookp. 632
Criticisms of Psychoanalysisp. 633
What Do Humanistic Therapies Emphasize?p. 634
Techniques of Client-Centered Therapyp. 635
Criticisms of Client-Centered Therapyp. 636
What Are the Methods of Behavior Therapy?p. 637
Assumptions and Goals of Behavior Therapyp. 637
Operant Conditioning in Behavior Therapyp. 638
Counterconditioning in Behavior Therapyp. 641
Modeling in Behavior Therapyp. 642
Point...Counterpoint: Can Alcoholics Become Controlled Drinkers?p. 643
Why Is Cognitive Therapy So Popular?p. 644
Assumptions of Cognitive Therapyp. 644
Types of Cognitive Therapyp. 644
How Does Therapy in a Group Work?p. 648
Techniques of Group Therapyp. 648
Family Therapyp. 648
How Do Psychologists Reach Out to Communities?p. 650
How Do Biologically Based Therapies Create Change?p. 653
Drugs and the Therapeutic Processp. 653
Brain and Behavior: A Best-Selling Medication-Prozacp. 655
Psychosurgery and Electroconvulsive Therapyp. 656
Alternative Therapiesp. 658
The Debate over Hospitalizationp. 658
Summary and Reviewp. 659
Psychology in Actionp. 662
How Is Behavior Affected by the Work Environment?p. 664
Definition of Industrial/Organizational Psychologyp. 664
Human Resourcesp. 665
Point...Counterpoint: Does Monitoring Drug and Alcohol Use Violate Employees' Rights?p. 667
Introduction to Research Basics: Sex Discrimination in Job Interviewsp. 669
Motivation and Job Performancep. 672
Job Satisfactionp. 676
Teams and Teamworkp. 678
Leadershipp. 679
The Future of I/O Psychologyp. 683
How Do Human Factors Affect Performance?p. 684
Efficiencyp. 684
Behavior-Based Safetyp. 685
How Do Psychology and the Law Work Together?p. 687
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