Practical Research: Planning and Design

by Leedy, Paul D.; Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis

• ISBN13: 9780139603600
• ISBN10: 0139603603
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2001-01-01
• Publisher: Pearson College Div

Summary

Written in uncommonly engaging, lucid, and elegant prose, this book is an "understand-it-yourself, do-it-yourself" manual designed to help readers understand the fundamental structure of quality research and the methodical process that leads to genuinely significant results. & It guides the reader, step-by-step, from the selection of a problem to study, through the process of conducting authentic research, to the preparation of a completed report, with practical suggestions based on a solid theoretical framework and sound pedagogy. This book will show readers two things: 1) that quality research demands planning and design; and, 2) how their own research projects can be executed effectively and professionally. For researchers and research analysts in any discipline.

Table of Contents

Introduction	xvii
PART I THE FUNDAMENTALS	1	(46)
What Is Research?	3	(11)
What Research Is Not	3	(1)
What Research Is	4	(5)
Discovering the Discipline of Research	9	(1)
Browsing the Periodicals Section of the Library	10	(1)
Computer Prompt: Finding Journals on the Internet	10	(1)
Practical Application: Evaluating the Research of Others	11	(1)
Checklist: Reflective questions to consider when evaluating research	11	(1)
Guidelines: Benefiting from Others' Research	12	(1)
For Further Reading	13	(1)
Tools of Research	14	(33)
General Tools of Research	14	(1)
The Library and Its Resources as a Tool of Research	15	(4)
The Library of the Quiet Past	15	(1)
The Library of the Stormy Present	16	(1)
How to Access Knowledge Quickly and Efficiently	16	(3)
Computer Prompt: The Computer and Its Software as a Tool of Research	19	(3)
Taking Advantage of the Internet	19	(3)
Accessing the Internet	22	(1)
Learning More About the Internet	22	(1)
Practical Application: Using the Internet to Facilitate Communication	22	(1)
Practical Application: Using E-Mail	23	(1)
Guidelines: Getting Started on E-Mail	23	(1)
Measurement as a Tool of Research	24	(8)
Measuring Insubstantial Phenomena: An Example	24	(3)
Interpretation of the Data	27	(1)
Four Scales of Measurement	28	(3)
Validity and Reliability of Measurement	31	(1)
Statistics as a Tool of Research	32	(1)
The Lure of Statistics	32	(1)
Primary Functions of Statistics	33	(1)
The Human Mind as a Tool of Research	33	(4)
Deductive Logic	34	(1)
Inductive Reasoning	35	(1)
The Scientific Method	36	(1)
Critical Thinking	36	(1)
Facility with Language as a Tool of Research	37	(2)
The Value of Knowing Two or More Languages	38	(1)
The Importance of Writing	38	(1)
Practical Application: Communicating Effectively Through Writing	39	(1)
Guidelines: Writing to Communicate	39	(2)
Computer Prompt: Using a Word Processor	41	(1)
Practical Application: Identifying Important Tools in Your Discipline	42	(1)
Checklist: Interviewing an Expert Researcher	43	(1)
Reflections on Significant Research	43	(1)
For Further Reading	44	(3)
PART II FOCUSING YOUR RESEARCH EFFORTS	47	(98)
The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process	49	(21)
Finding Research Projects	49	(2)
Practical Application: Identifying and Describing the Research Problem	51	(1)
Guidelines: Finding a Legitimate Problem	51	(1)
Guidelines: Stating the Research Problem	51	(5)
Checklist: Stating the research problem	56	(1)
Dividing the Research Problem into Subproblems	56	(3)
Subproblems Versus Pseudosubproblems	57	(1)
Characteristics of Subproblems	57	(1)
Identifying Subproblems	58	(1)
Computer Prompt: Using Brainstorming Software	59	(1)
Every Problem Needs Further Delineation	60	(3)
Stating the Hypotheses and/or Research Questions	60	(1)
Delimiting the Research	61	(1)
Defining the Terms	61	(1)
Stating the Assumptions	62	(1)
Importance of the Study	63	(1)
Ordering the Topics in a Research Proposal	63	(1)
A Sample Research Proposal	63	(1)
Dissertation Analysis 1	64	(2)
Practical Application: Writing and Evaluating a Proposal	66	(1)
Checklist: Evaluating your research plan	66	(1)
Practical Application: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem	67	(1)
Guidelines: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem	68	(1)
For Further Reading	68	(2)
The Review of the Related Literature	70	(21)
Understanding the Role of the Review	70	(1)
Beginning Your Search for Related Literature	71	(1)
The Library's Book Collection	71	(1)
Computer Prompt: Accessing a Library Catalog from Home	71	(2)
Indexes, Abstracts, and Other General References	71	(2)
Computer Prompt: Using CD-ROM Technology	73	(1)
Online Searches	74	(1)
Additional Resources for Your Literature Review	74	(1)
Government Publications	74	(1)
The World Wide Web	75	(1)
Computer Prompt: Searching the Web	75	(1)
Using the Citations and References Lists of Those Who Have Gone Before	76	(1)
Practical Application: Conducting a Literature Search	76	(2)
Guidelines: Using Your Library Time Efficiently	78	(2)
Organizing the Information You Have Collected	80	(1)
Computer Prompt: Creating Computer Databases	81	(1)
Knowing When to Quit	81	(3)
Practical Application: Beginning Your Review of the Related Literature	84	(1)
Evaluating, Organizing, and Synthesizing the Literature	84	(1)
Practical Application: Writing the Section on the Related Literature	84	(1)
Guidelines: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Review	84	(2)
A Sample Research Proposal	86	(1)
Dissertation Analysis 2	87	(2)
For Further Reading	89	(2)
Planning Your Research Design	91	(31)
Planning Your Research	91	(3)
The Basic Format of All Research	91	(2)
Research Planning Versus Research Methodology	93	(1)
General Criteria for a Research Project	94	(1)
The Data: Their Nature and Role in Research	94	(4)
What Are Data?	94	(1)
Data Are Transient and Ever-Changing	95	(1)
Primary Data Versus Secondary Data	95	(2)
Criteria for the Admissibility of Data	97	(1)
Identifying Appropriate Measurement Instruments	98	(2)
Determining the Validity of Measurement Instruments	98	(1)
Determining the Reliability of Measurement Instruments	99	(1)
Linking Data and Research Methodology	100	(3)
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches	101	(2)
Considering the Validity of Your Method	103	(4)
Internal Validity	103	(2)
External Validity	105	(1)
Validity in Qualitative Research	106	(1)
Ethical Issues in Research	107	(4)
Protection from Harm	107	(1)
Informed Consent	107	(1)
Right to Privacy	108	(1)
Honesty with Professional Colleagues	108	(2)
Internal Review Boards	110	(1)
Professional Codes of Ethics	111	(1)
Planning for Data Collection	111	(1)
Practical Application: Choosing a Research Approach	112	(1)
Guidelines: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach	112	(1)
Practical Application: Judging the Feasibility of the Research Project	113	(1)
Checklist: Estimation sheet to determine the feasibility of the research project	114	(2)
When You Can't Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study	116	(1)
Practical Application: Establishing Research Criteria	117	(1)
Justifying the Research Methodology	117	(1)
Practical Application: Developing a Plan of Attack	118	(1)
Computer Prompt: Using Project Management Software and Electronic Planners	118	(1)
Keeping an Optimistic and Task-Oriented Outlook	118	(2)
For Further Reading	120	(2)
Writing the Research Proposal	122	(23)
Researcher and Architect: Planners in Common	122	(1)
Characteristics of a Proposal	123	(3)
A Proposal Is a Straightforward Document	124	(1)
A Proposal Is Not a Literary Production	124	(1)
A Proposal Is Clearly Organized	124	(2)
Formatting a Research Proposal	126	(2)
Formatting Headings and Subheadings	127	(1)
Practical Application: Writing Your Proposal	128	(1)
Guidelines: Writing the First Draft	128	(1)
Guidelines: Revising Your Proposal	129	(1)
Computer Prompt: Using Word Processing to Write Your Proposal	130	(3)
The Importance of Interpreting the Data	133	(1)
Practical Application: Planning Your Interpretation of the Data	133	(1)
Guidelines: Describing Your Treatment of the Data	133	(2)
Using a Summary Graphic	135	(1)
Common Weaknesses in Research Proposals	135	(2)
Practical Application: Strengthening Your Proposal	137	(1)
Checklist: Features detracting from proposal effectiveness	137	(1)
Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing	138	(1)
A Sample Research Proposal	139	(1)
Dissertation Analysis 3	139	(3)
For Further Reading	142	(3)
PART III QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES	145	(44)
Qualitative Research	147	(25)
The Nature of the Research Problem and Planning in Qualitative Research	148	(1)
When to Choose a Qualitative Approach	148	(1)
Qualitative Research Designs	149	(9)
Case Study	149	(2)
Ethnography	151	(2)
Phenomenological Study	153	(1)
Grounded Theory Study	154	(1)
Content Analysis	155	(3)
Collecting Data in Qualitative Research	158	(1)
Observations	158	(1)
Interviews	159	(1)
Practical Application: Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Study	159	(1)
Guidelines: Conducting a Productive Interview	159	(1)
Computer Prompt: Using Technology to Facilitate Data Collection and Transcription	160	(1)
Organizing and Analyzing the Data from Qualitative Studies	160	(2)
Computer Prompt: Using Computer Databases to Facilitate Data Organization and Interpretation	162	(1)
Practical Application: Planning a Qualitative Study	162	(1)
Checklist: Planning a qualitative study	163	(1)
Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research	164	(1)
Practical Application: Evaluating a Qualitative Study	165	(1)
Checklist: Evaluating qualitative research studies	165	(1)
A Sample Dissertation	166	(1)
Dissertation Analysis 4	166	(4)
For Further Reading	170	(2)
Historical Research	172	(17)
Historical Research: The Meaning of Events	172	(1)
Data Sources in Historical Research	173	(1)
Computer Prompt: Electronic Databases and Historical Data	173	(1)
Evaluating and Interpreting Historical Data	174	(1)
External Evidence	174	(1)
Internal Evidence	174	(1)
Considering Historical Time and Historical Space	175	(4)
Historical Time	176	(2)
Historical Space	178	(1)
Practical Application: Handling Historical Data Systematically	179	(2)
A Paper-Pencil Approach: Making Note Cards and Bibliography Cards	180	(1)
Computer Prompt: A Computerized Approach to Collecting and Organizing Your Data	181	(1)
Psychological or Conceptual Historical Research	181	(1)
The Fascination of Searching for Roots	182	(1)
Practical Application: Historical Research Writing	182	(1)
Checklist: Comparing two records of a significant event in history	182	(1)
Guidelines: Writing the Historical Research Report	183	(1)
A Sample Dissertation	184	(1)
Dissertation Analysis 5	184	(3)
For Further Reading	187	(2)
PART IV QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES	189	(94)
Descriptive Research	187	(42)
Descriptive Research Designs	191	(6)
Correlational Research	191	(3)
Developmental Designs	194	(1)
Observation Studies	195	(1)
Survey Research	196	(1)
Using Checklists and Rating Scales	197	(2)
Practical Application: Planning and Conducting Interviews	199	(1)
Guidelines: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study	200	(2)
An Example in International Relations	200	(2)
Practical Application: Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire	202	(1)
Guidelines: Constructing a Questionnaire	202	(2)
Guidelines: Maximizing Your Return Rate for a Mailed Questionnaire	204	(5)
Computer Prompt: Using Databases, Word Processing, and Mail Merge to Facilitate Questionnaire Mailing	209	(1)
Computer Prompt: Using Scanners to Facilitate Questionnaire Data	210	(1)
Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study	210	(14)
Sampling Designs	211	(9)
Sampling in Survey Research	220	(2)
Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size	222	(1)
Bias in Research Sampling	222	(2)
Practical Application: Population Analysis for a Descriptive Survey	224	(1)
Checklist: Analyzing a population	224	(1)
Computer Prompt: Computerizing Data Collection in Descriptive Research	225	(1)
Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research	226	(1)
Some Final Suggestions	227	(1)
For Further Reading	227	(2)
Experimental and Causal-Comparative Designs	229	(23)
The Importance of Control	230	(3)
Independent and Dependent Variables	233	(1)
Examples of Experimental Research Designs	234	(5)
Pre-Experimental Designs	234	(2)
True Experimental Designs	236	(1)
Quasi-Experimental Designs	237	(2)
Causal-Comparative Designs	239	(3)
Factorial Designs	242	(3)
Testing Your Hypotheses, and Beyond	245	(1)
Practical Application: Identifying a Research Design	245	(1)
A Sample Dissertation	246	(1)
Dissertation Analysis 6	247	(3)
For Further Reading	250	(2)
Statistical Techniques for Analyzing Quantitative Data	252	(31)
Exploring the Data	252	(3)
Drawing Conclusions from the Data	255	(1)
Computer Prompt: Spreadsheets and the Description and Analysis of Data	255	(2)
The Role of Statistics in Making Data More Meaningful	257	(2)
Functions of Statistics	259	(1)
Statistics as Estimates of Population Parameters	260	(1)
Considering the Nature of the Data	260	(4)
Parametric versus Nonparametric Statistics	263	(1)
Descriptive Statistics	264	(8)
Points of Central Tendency	264	(4)
Measures of Variation: Dispersion or Deviation	268	(3)
Measures of Relationship: Correlation	271	(1)
Inferential Statistics	272	(6)
Estimation	273	(2)
Hypothesis Testing	275	(3)
Practical Application: Analyzing Data in a Quantitative Study	278	(1)
Checklist: Questions to consider when choosing a statistical procedure	278	(1)
Computer Prompt: Using Statistical Software Packages	279	(1)
For Further Reading	280	(3)
PART V PREPARING THE RESEARCH REPORT	283	(24)
Technical Details: Style, Format, and Organization of the Research Report	285	(22)
Getting Started	285	(1)
Computer Prompt: ``Surfing'' the Internet for Writing Assistance	286	(1)
Practical Application: Critiquing a Research Report	287	(1)
Checklist: Criteria for critiquing a research report	287	(1)
Planning a Research Report	288	(4)
Description of the Research Problem	289	(1)
Description of the Method	289	(1)
Presentation of the Data	290	(1)
Interpretation of the Data	290	(1)
Concluding the Report	291	(1)
A Graphic Organizer for the Research Report	292	(1)
Front Matter and End Matter	293	(4)
Preliminary Pages	293	(1)
Citations and Reference Lists	294	(2)
Endnotes and Footnotes	296	(1)
Appendix Content	297	(1)
Computer Prompt: Style Manual Assistance on the Internet	297	(1)
Organizing the Research Report	297	(2)
Preparing the Report	299	(2)
Style of Prose	300	(1)
Principles of Writing	300	(1)
Practical Application: Developing a Writing Schedule	301	(1)
Guidelines: Developing a Workable Schedule	302	(1)
Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing	303	(1)
Paper Presentations	303	(1)
Journal Articles	303	(1)
Sharing Authorship	304	(1)
A Closing Thought	304	(1)
For Further Reading	305	(2)
References	307	(4)
Index	311