Principles of Plasma Discharges and Materials Processing

by Lieberman, Michael A.; Lichtenberg, Alan J.

• ISBN13: 9780471720010
• ISBN10: 0471720011
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-04-14
• Publisher: Wiley-Interscience

Summary

A Thorough Update of the Industry Classic on Principles of Plasma Processing The first edition of Principles of Plasma Discharges and Materials Processing, published over a decade ago, was lauded for its complete treatment of both basic plasma physics and industrial plasma processing, quickly becoming the primary reference for students and professionals. The Second Edition has been carefully updated and revised to reflect recent developments in the field and to further clarify the presentation of basic principles. Along with in-depth coverage of the fundamentals of plasma physics and chemistry, the authors apply basic theory to plasma discharges, including calculations of plasma parameters and the scaling of plasma parameters with control parameters. New and expanded topics include: * Updated cross sections * Diffusion and diffusion solutions * Generalized Bohm criteria * Expanded treatment of dc sheaths * Langmuir probes in time-varying fields * Electronegative discharges * Pulsed power discharges * Dual frequency discharges * High-density rf sheaths and ion energy distributions * Hysteresis and instabilities * Helicon discharges * Hollow cathode discharges * Ionized physical vapor deposition * Differential substrate charging With new chapters on dusty plasmas and the kinetic theory of discharges, graduate students and researchers in the field of plasma processing should find this new edition more valuable than ever.

Author Biography

MICHAEL A. LIEBERMAN, PhD, is Professor in the Graduate School in Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. He has published more than 170 journal articles on the topics of plasmas, plasma processing, and nonlinear dynamics. He has also coauthored, with Professor Lichtenberg, Regular and Stochastic Motion and Regular and Chaotic Dynamics, Second Edition.

ALLAN J. LICHTENBERG, PhD, is Professor in the Graduate School in Electrical Engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. A respected pioneer in the fields of high-temperature plasmas, plasma discharges, and nonlinear dynamics, he has published about 150 articles in these areas. In addition to the books coauthored with Professor Lieberman, he has written an earlier monograph Phase-Space Dynamics of Particles (Wiley).

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
Preface to the First Edition	xxi
Symbols and Abbreviations	xxv
Physical Constants and Conversion Factors	xxxiii
Practical Formulae	xxxv
Introduction	1	(22)
Materials Processing	1	(5)
Plasmas and Sheaths	6	(8)
Plasmas	6	(5)
Sheaths	11	(3)
Discharges	14	(6)
Radio Frequency Diodes	14	(4)
High-Density Sources	18	(2)
Symbols and Units	20	(3)
Basic Plasma Equations and Equilibrium	23	(20)
Introduction	23	(1)
Field Equations, Current, and Voltage	24	(4)
Maxwell's Equations	24	(4)
The Conservation Equations	28	(7)
Boltzmann's Equation	28	(2)
Macroscopic Quantities	30	(1)
Particle Conservation	30	(1)
Momentum Conservation	31	(3)
Energy Conservation	34	(1)
Summary	35	(1)
Equilibrium Properties	35	(8)
Boltzmann's Relation	37	(1)
Debye Length	38	(2)
Quasi-neutrality	40	(1)
Problems	41	(2)
Atomic Collisions	43	(44)
Basic Concepts	43	(6)
Elastic and Inelastic Collisions	43	(1)
Collision Parameters	44	(2)
Differential Scattering Cross Section	46	(3)
Collision Dynamics	49	(6)
Center-of-Mass Coordinates	49	(3)
Energy Transfer	52	(1)
Small Angle Scattering	53	(2)
Elastic Scattering	55	(8)
Coulomb Collisions	55	(3)
Polarization Scattering	58	(5)
Inelastic Collisions	63	(15)
Atomic Energy Levels	63	(4)
Electric Dipole Radiation and Metastable Atoms	67	(3)
Electron Ionization Cross Section	70	(2)
Electron Excitation Cross Section	72	(1)
Ion--Atom Charge Transfer	73	(5)
Ion--Atom Ionization	78	(1)
Averaging Over Distributions and Surface Effects	78	(9)
Averaging Over a Maxwellian Distribution	78	(3)
Energy Loss per Electron--Ion Pair Created	81	(1)
Surface Effects	82	(1)
Problems	83	(4)
Plasma Dynamics	87	(46)
Basic Motions	87	(6)
Motion in Constant Fields	87	(3)
E x B Drifts	90	(1)
Energy Conservation	91	(2)
Nonmagnetized Plasma Dynamics	93	(9)
Plasma Oscillations	93	(2)
Dielectric Constant and Conductivity	95	(2)
Ohmic Heating	97	(2)
Electromagnetic Waves	99	(2)
Electrostatic Waves	101	(1)
Guiding Center Motion	102	(8)
Parallel Force	104	(1)
Adiabatic Constancy of the Magnetic Moment	105	(1)
Drift Due to Motion Along Field Lines (Curvature Drift)	106	(1)
Drift Due to Gyration (Gradient Drift)	107	(1)
Polarization Drift	108	(2)
Dynamics of Magnetized Plasmas	110	(3)
Dielectric Tensor	110	(2)
The Wave Dispersion	112	(1)
Waves in Magnetized Plasmas	113	(10)
Principal Electron Waves	115	(3)
Principal Waves Including Ion Dynamics	118	(3)
The CMA Diagram	121	(2)
Wave Diagnostics	123	(10)
Interferometer	123	(3)
Cavity Perturbation	126	(1)
Wave Propagation	127	(2)
Problems	129	(4)
Diffusion and Transport	133	(32)
Basic Relations	133	(3)
Diffusion and Mobility	133	(1)
Free Diffusion	134	(1)
Ambipolar Diffusion	135	(1)
Diffusion Solutions	136	(8)
Boundary Conditions	136	(2)
Time-Dependent Solution	138	(1)
Steady-State Plane-Parallel Solutions	139	(3)
Steady-State Cylindrical Solutions	142	(2)
Low-Pressure Solutions	144	(5)
Variable Mobility Model	144	(2)
Langmuir Solution	146	(1)
Heuristic Solutions	147	(2)
Diffusion Across a Magnetic Field	149	(6)
Ambipolar Diffusion	152	(3)
Magnetic Multipole Confinement	155	(10)
Magnetic Fields	155	(2)
Plasma Confinement	157	(2)
Leak Width w	159	(1)
Problems	160	(5)
Direct Current (DC) Sheaths	165	(42)
Basic Concepts and Equations	165	(3)
The Collisionless Sheath	167	(1)
The Bohm Sheath Criterion	168	(7)
Plasma Requirements	169	(1)
The Presheath	170	(2)
Sheath Potential at a Floating Wall	172	(1)
Collisional Sheaths	173	(1)
Simulation Results	174	(1)
The High-Voltage Sheath	175	(3)
Matrix Sheath	175	(1)
Child Law Sheath	176	(2)
Generalized Criteria for Sheath Formation	178	(6)
Electronegative Gases	179	(3)
Multiple Positive Ion Species	182	(2)
High-Voltage Collisional Sheaths	184	(1)
Electrostatic Probe Diagnostics	185	(22)
Planar Probe With Collisionless Sheath	187	(2)
Non-Maxwellian Electrons	189	(2)
Cylindrical Probe With a Collisionless Sheath	191	(4)
Double Probes and Emissive Probes	195	(3)
Effect of Collisions and DC Magnetic Fields	198	(1)
Probe Construction and Circuits	199	(2)
Probes in Time-Varying Fields	201	(2)
Problems	203	(4)
Chemical Reactions and Equilibrium	207	(28)
Introduction	207	(1)
Energy and Enthalpy	208	(8)
Entropy and Gibbs Free Energy	216	(5)
Gibbs Free Energy	219	(2)
Chemical Equilibrium	221	(5)
Pressure and Temperature Variations	224	(2)
Heterogeneous Equilibrium	226	(9)
Equilibrium Between Phases	226	(3)
Equilibrium at a Surface	229	(2)
Problems	231	(4)
Molecular Collisions	235	(50)
Introduction	235	(1)
Molecular Structure	236	(5)
Vibrational and Rotational Motion	237	(2)
Optical Emission	239	(1)
Negative Ions	240	(1)
Electron Collisions With Molecules	241	(12)
Dissociation	243	(2)
Dissociative Ionization	245	(1)
Dissociative Recombination	246	(1)
Example of Hydrogen	247	(1)
Dissociative Electron Attachment	247	(3)
Polar Dissociation	250	(1)
Metastable Negative Ions	251	(1)
Electron Impact Detachment	251	(1)
Vibrational and Rotational Excitations	252	(1)
Elastic Scattering	253	(1)
Heavy-Particle Collisions	253	(12)
Resonant and Nonresonant Charge Transfer	255	(1)
Positive--Negative Ion Recombination	256	(2)
Associative Detachment	258	(2)
Transfer of Excitation	260	(2)
Rearrangement of Chemical Bonds	262	(1)
Ion--Neutral Elastic Scattering	263	(1)
Three-Body Processes	264	(1)
Reaction Rates and Detailed Balancing	265	(9)
Temperature Dependence	266	(1)
The Principle of Detailed Balancing	267	(3)
A Data Set for Oxygen	270	(4)
Optical Emission and Actinometry	274	(11)
Optical Emission	275	(2)
Optical Actinometry	277	(1)
O Atom Actinometry	278	(1)
Problems	279	(6)
Chemical Kinetics and Surface Processes	285	(42)
Elementary Reactions	285	(4)
Relation to Equilibrium Constant	288	(1)
Gas-Phase Kinetics	289	(10)
First-Order Consecutive Reactions	290	(2)
Opposing Reactions	292	(1)
Bimolecular Association With Photon Emission	293	(2)
Three-Body Association	295	(2)
Three-Body Positive--Negative Ion Recombination	297	(1)
Three-Body Electron--Ion Recombination	298	(1)
Surface Processes	299	(12)
Positive Ion Neutralization and Secondary Electron Emission	299	(4)
Adsorption and Desorption	303	(5)
Fragmentation	308	(1)
Sputtering	308	(3)
Surface Kinetics	311	(16)
Diffusion of Neutral Species	311	(1)
Loss Rate for Diffusion	312	(3)
Adsorption and Desorption	315	(1)
Dissociative Adsorption and Associative Desorption	316	(1)
Physical Adsorption	316	(1)
Reaction With a Surface	317	(1)
Reactions on a Surface	318	(1)
Surface Kinetics and Loss Probability	319	(1)
Problems	320	(7)
Particle and Energy Balance in Discharges	327	(60)
Introduction	327	(3)
Electropositive Plasma Equilibrium	330	(10)
Basic Properties	330	(3)
Uniform Density Discharge Model	333	(3)
Nonuniform Discharge Model	336	(2)
Neutral Radical Generation and Loss	338	(2)
Electronegative Plasma Equilibrium	340	(10)
Differential Equations	342	(3)
Boltzmann Equilibrium for Negative Ions	345	(3)
Conservation Equations	348	(1)
Validity of Reduced Equations	349	(1)
Approximate Electronegative Equilibria	350	(9)
Global Models	351	(3)
Parabolic Approximation For Low Pressures	354	(4)
Flat-Topped Model For Higher Pressures	358	(1)
Electronegative Discharge Experiments and Simulations	359	(10)
Oxygen Discharges	360	(6)
Chlorine Discharges	366	(3)
Pulsed Discharges	369	(18)
Pulsed Electropositive Discharges	370	(6)
Pulsed Electronegative Discharges	376	(4)
Neutral Radical Dynamics	380	(1)
Problems	381	(6)
Capacitive Discharges	387	(74)
Homogeneous Model	388	(11)
Plasma Admittance	390	(1)
Sheath Admittance	391	(4)
Particle and Energy Balance	395	(2)
Discharge Parameters	397	(2)
Inhomogeneous Model	399	(19)
Collisionless Sheath Dynamics	400	(2)
Child Law	402	(1)
Sheath Capacitance	403	(1)
Ohmic Heating	404	(1)
Stochastic Heating	405	(1)
Self-Consistent Model Equations	406	(4)
Scaling	410	(1)
Collisional Sheaths	411	(2)
Low and Moderate Voltages	413	(1)
Ohmic Heating in the Sheath	413	(1)
Self-Consistent Collisionless Heating Models	414	(2)
Dual-Frequency and High-Frequency Discharges	416	(1)
Electronegative Plasmas	417	(1)
Experiments and Simulations	418	(12)
Experimental Results	419	(4)
Particle-in-Cell Simulations	423	(5)
Role of Secondaries	428	(1)
Implications for Modeling	429	(1)
Asymmetric Discharges	430	(4)
Capacitive Voltage Divider	430	(2)
Spherical Shell Model	432	(2)
Low-Frequency RF Sheaths	434	(7)
Ion Bombarding Energy at Electrodes	441	(7)
Magnetically Enhanced Discharges	448	(4)
Matching Networks and Power Measurements	452	(9)
Power Measurements	456	(1)
Problems	457	(4)
Inductive Discharges	461	(30)
High-Density, Low-Pressure Discharges	462	(8)
Inductive Source Configurations	462	(2)
Power Absorption and Operating Regimes	464	(2)
Discharge Operation and Coupling	466	(3)
Matching Network	469	(1)
Other Operating Regimes	470	(7)
Low-Density Operation	470	(1)
Capacitive Coupling	471	(2)
Hysteresis and Instabilities	473	(3)
Power Transfer Efficiency	476	(1)
Exact Solutions	476	(1)
Planar Coil Configuration	477	(6)
Helical Resonator Discharges	483	(8)
Problems	487	(4)
Wave-Heated Discharges	491	(44)
Electron Cyclotron Resonance Discharges	492	(21)
Characteristics and Configurations	492	(5)
Electron Heating	497	(4)
Resonant Wave Absorption	501	(6)
Model and Simulations	507	(2)
Plasma Expansion	509	(3)
Measurements	512	(1)
Helicon Discharges	513	(14)
Helicon Modes	514	(3)
Antenna Coupling	517	(3)
Helicon Mode Absorption	520	(5)
Neutral Gas Depletion	525	(2)
Surface Wave Discharges	527	(8)
Planar Surface Waves	528	(2)
Cylindrical Surface Waves	530	(1)
Power Balance	530	(2)
Problems	532	(3)
Direct Current (DC) Discharges	535	(36)
Qualitative Characteristics of Glow Discharges	535	(4)
Positive Column	536	(1)
Cathode Sheath	537	(1)
Negative Glow and Faraday Dark Space	537	(1)
Anode Fall	537	(1)
Other Effects	538	(1)
Sputtering and Other Configurations	539	(1)
Analysis of the Positive Column	539	(4)
Calculation of Te	540	(1)
Calculation of E and n0	541	(1)
Kinetic Effects	542	(1)
Analysis of the Cathode Region	543	(8)
Vacuum Breakdown	544	(2)
Cathode Sheath	546	(4)
The Negative Glow and Faraday Dark Space	550	(1)
Hollow Cathode Discharges	551	(8)
Simple Discharge Model	552	(3)
Metal Vapor Production in a Hollow Cathode Discharge	555	(4)
Planar Magnetron Discharges	559	(5)
Limitations of Glow Discharge Sputtering Source	559	(1)
Magnetron Configuration	560	(1)
Discharge Model	561	(3)
Ionized Physical Vapor Deposition	564	(7)
Problems	568	(3)
Etching	571	(48)
Etch Requirements and Processes	571	(8)
Plasma Etch Requirements	572	(4)
Etch Processes	576	(3)
Etching Kinetics	579	(7)
Surface Kinetics	579	(4)
Discharge Kinetics and Loading Effect	583	(2)
Chemical Framework	585	(1)
Halogen Atom Etching of Silicon	586	(14)
Pure Chemical F-Atom Etching	587	(2)
Ion Energy-Driven F-Atom Etching	589	(3)
CF4 Discharges	592	(4)
O2 and H2 Feedstock Additions	596	(2)
Cl-Atom Etching	598	(2)
Other Etch Systems	600	(6)
F and CFx Etching of SiO2	600	(2)
Si3N4 Etching	602	(1)
Aluminum Etching	602	(1)
Copper Etching	603	(1)
Resist Etching	604	(2)
Substrate Charging	606	(13)
Gate Oxide Damage	607	(1)
Grounded Substrate	607	(1)
Nonuniform Plasmas	608	(3)
Transient Damage During Etching	611	(1)
Electron Shading Effect	612	(1)
Radiofrequency Biasing	613	(1)
Etch Profile Distortions	614	(2)
Problems	616	(3)
Deposition and Implantation	619	(30)
Introduction	619	(2)
Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition	621	(9)
Amorphous Silicon	622	(3)
Silicon Dioxide	625	(4)
Silicon Nitride	629	(1)
Sputter Deposition	630	(4)
Physical Sputtering	630	(2)
Reactive Sputtering	632	(2)
Plasma-Immersion Ion Implantation (PIII)	634	(15)
Collisionless Sheath Model	636	(5)
Collisional Sheath Model	641	(3)
Applications of PIII to Materials Processing	644	(2)
Problems	646	(3)
Dusty Plasmas	649	(30)
Qualitative Description of Phenomena	649	(2)
Particle Charging and Discharge Equilibrium	651	(7)
Equilibrium Potential and Charge	651	(5)
Discharge Equilibrium	656	(2)
Particulate Equilibrium	658	(4)
Formation And Growth Of Dust Grains	662	(6)
Physical Phenomena And Diagnostics	668	(5)
Strongly Coupled Plasmas	668	(1)
Dust Acoustic Waves	669	(1)
Driven Particulate Motion	670	(1)
Laser Light Scattering	671	(2)
Removal or Production of Particulates	673	(6)
Problems	675	(4)
Kinetic Theory of Discharges	679	(44)
Basic Concepts	679	(10)
Two-Term Approximation	680	(1)
The Krook Collision Operator	680	(1)
Two-Term Collisional Kinetic Equations	681	(3)
Diffusion and Mobility	684	(1)
Druyvesteyn Distribution	685	(1)
Electron Distribution in an RF Field	686	(1)
Effective Electrical Conductivity	687	(2)
Local Kinetics	689	(4)
Nonlocal Kinetics	693	(6)
Quasi-Linear Diffusion and Stochastic Heating	699	(7)
Quasi-linear Diffusion Coefficient	700	(3)
Stochastic Heating	703	(1)
Relation to Velocity Kick Models	704	(1)
Two Term Kinetic Equations	704	(2)
Energy Diffusion in a Skin Depth Layer	706	(5)
Stochastic Heating	706	(2)
Effective Collision Frequency	708	(1)
Energy Distribution	709	(2)
Kinetic Modeling of Discharges	711	(12)
Non-Maxwellian Global Models	711	(1)
Inductive Discharges	712	(3)
Capacitive Discharges	715	(4)
Problems	719	(4)
APPENDIX A. COLLISION DYNAMICS	723	(4)
Coulomb Cross Section	725	(2)
APPENDIX B. THE COLLISION INTEGRAL	727	(4)
Boltzmann Collision Integral	727	(1)
Maxwellian Distribution	728	(3)
APPENDIX C. DIFFUSION SOLUTIONS FOR VARIABLE MOBILITY MODEL	731	(4)
References	735	(14)
Index	749