Remote Sensing Of Coastal Aquatic Environments

by Miller, Richard L.; De Castillo, Carlos E.; McKee, Brent A.

• ISBN13: 9781402030994
• ISBN10: 1402030991
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-04-25
• Publisher: Kluwer Academic Pub

Summary

Coastal waters are important ecological systems and vital assets for many nations. Coastal waters are also complex, dynamic environments where a vast array of coupled biological, chemical, geological, and physical processes occurs over multiple time and space scales. The optical environment of coastal waters is particularly complex. There is considerable interest in studying coastal waters to gain a better understanding of earth system processes for climatic change research or environmental factors for management decisions. Consequently, there is a need for robust, effective technologies and methods for studying these important complex environments. Remote sensing from aircraft and space-based platforms offers unique large-scale synoptic data to address the intricate nature of coastal waters. However, many researchers wishing to apply remote sensing to a dynamic coastal environment are faced with the challenge of learning a technology laden with new and often confusing terminology, data, and methods of processing and analysis. To gain an adequate understanding of remote sensing generally involves scouring countless technical manuals, reports, and scientific papers. Hence the major goal of writing this work was to produce a comprehensive resource for those involved in various studies of coastal aquatic environments. With its primary focus on optical remote sensing using passive instruments, the editors have indeed succeeded in creating a book the scientific community has been waiting for.

Author Biography

Dr. Richard Miller received the Ph.D. in biological oceanography from North Carolina State University in 1984. He is currently the Chief Scientist at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at the Stennis Space Center. His research interests include the role that river-dominated coastal margins play in the global cycling of materials including carbon. He is involved in developing field instruments and computational technologies for the application of remote sensing to coastal environments. He has co-authored more than 80 papers in international journals and conferences. Dr. Carlos Del Castillo received his Ph.D. in Oceanography from the Department of Marine Science, University of South Florida. In his dissertation work he described the optical properties of Colored Dissolved Organic Matter in waters of the Eastern Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and the Arabian Sea. Current research interest include how changes in chemical composition of Colored Dissolved Organic Matter affect optical properties of water, and the use of remote sensing to study transport of organic carbon by river plumes. Dr. Del Castillo is a researcher at NASA Stennis Space Center. Brent McKee is a graduate of the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill with a Ph.D. from North Carolina State University. He is currently a Full Professor at Tulane University.

Table of Contents

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS	xiii
PREFACE	xvii
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION TO RADIATIVE TRANSFER	1	(20)
J. RONALD V. ZANEVELD, MICHAEL J. TWARDOWSKI, ANDREW BARNARD AND MARLON R. LEWIS
1. Introduction	1	(1)
2. The Equation of Radiative Transfer	2	(3)
3. Gershun's Equation	5	(2)
4. Inversions and Remote Sensing	7	(4)
5. Lidar	11	(2)
5.1 Illumination and detection footprints	11	(1)
5.2 Backscattering signal	11	(1)
5.3 Stimulated fluorescence, excitation wavelength 532 nm, emission wavelength 685 nm	12	(1)
5.4 Raman scattering, excitation wavelength 532 nm, emission wavelength 651 nm	12	(1)
5.5 Signal strength estimations	12	(1)
6. Inherent, Radiometric, and Apparent Optical Properties	13	(5)
6.1 Inherent optical properties	13	(2)
6.2 Radiometry and apparent optical properties	15	(1)
6.3 The air-sea interface	16	(2)
7. Conclusions	18	(1)
8. Acknowledgments	18	(1)
9. References	18	(3)
Chapter 2 AN INTRODUCTION TO SATELLITE SENSORS, OBSERVATIONS AND TECHNIQUES	21	(30)
CHRISTOPHER W. BROWN, LAURENCE N. CONNOR, JOHN L. LILLIBRIDGE, NICHOLAS R. NALLI AND RICHARD V. LEGECKIS
1. Introduction	21	(2)
2. An Overview of Remote Sensing from Space	23	(6)
2.1 Introduction to electromagnetic radiation	23	(1)
2.2 Basic characteristics of satellite remote sensing systems	24	(6)
2.2.1 Satellite orbits	24	(3)
2.2.2 Sensor attributes and observational characteristics	27	(2)
3. Observational Categories and Corresponding Sensors	29	(1)
4. Ocean Remote Sensing Systems	30	(18)
4.1 Visible - Near Infrared ocean color	30	(5)
4.1.1 Basic theory of observations	30	(1)
4.1.2 Sensors - past, present and future	31	(2)
4.1.3 Coastal capabilities and limitations	33	(2)
4.2 Thermal Infrared	35	(5)
4.2.1 Basic theory of observations	35	(2)
4.2.2 Sensors - past, present and future	37	(1)
4.2.3 Coastal capabilities and limitations	38	(2)
4.3 Passive microwave radiometers	40	(1)
4.3.1 Basic theory of observations	40	(1)
4.3.2 Radiometers - past, present and future	41	(1)
4.3.3 Coastal capabilities and limitations	41	(1)
4.4 Scatterometers	41	(2)
4.4.1 Basic theory of observations	42	(1)
4.4.2 Sensors - past, present and future	42	(1)
4.4.3 Coastal capabilities and limitations	42	(1)
4.5 Altimeters	43	(3)
4.5.1 Basic theory of observations	43	(2)
4.5.2 Sensors - past, present and future	45	(1)
4.5.3 Coastal capabilities and limitations	46	(1)
4.6 Synthetic aperture radar	46	(5)
4.6.1 Basic theory of observations	46	(1)
4.6.2 Sensors - past, present and future	46	(1)
4.6.3 Coastal capabilities and limitations	47	(1)
5. Summary	48	(1)
6. Acknowledgements	48	(1)
7. References	49	(2)
Chapter 3 OPTICAL AIRBORNE REMOTE SENSING	51	(18)
JEFFREY S. MYERS AND RICHARD L. MILLER
1. Introduction	51	(1)
2. Elements of Airborne Remote Sensing	51	(4)
2.1 Aircraft as remote sensing platforms	52	(3)
3. Airborne Optical Instruments	55	(4)
3.1 Instrument calibration	57	(2)
3.1.1 Radiometric calibration	57	(1)
3.1.2 Spectral characterization	58	(1)
3.1.3 Spatial characterization	59	(1)
4. Deployment Issues	59	(6)
4.1 Instrument operating considerations	60	(1)
4.2 Mission planning	61	(3)
4.2.1 Flight operations and planning	61	(2)
4.2.2 Solar geometry and site conditions	63	(1)
4.3 Post-flight data processing	64	(1)
5. Summary	65	(1)
6. References	66	(3)
Chapter 4 IN-WATER INSTRUMENTATION AND PLATFORMS FOR OCEAN COLOR REMOTE SENSING APPLICATIONS	69	(32)
MICHAEL S. TWARDOWSKI, MARLON R. LEWIS, ANDREW H. BARNARD AND J. RONALD V. ZANEVELD
1. Introduction	69	(2)
2. In-water Instrumentation	71	(10)
2.1 In-water measurement of inherent optical properties	72	(4)
2.2 In-water measurement of apparent optical properties	76	(2)
2.3 Biogeochemical properties	78	(3)
3. Platforms	81	(10)
3.1 Stationary vertical profilers	81	(3)
3.2 Flow-through systems	84	(1)
3.3 Towed vehicles	85	(1)
3.4 Moored platforms	86	(2)
3.5 Profiling floats	88	(1)
3.6 Automated underwater vehicles	89	(1)
3.6.1 Self-propelled vehicles	89	(1)
3.6.2 Gliders	90	(1)
3.7 Divers and nekton	90	(1)
4. Considering Sampling Strategy	91	(2)
5. Acknowledgments	93	(1)
6. References	93	(8)
Chapter 5 THE COLOR OF THE COASTAL OCEAN AND APPLICATIONS IN THE SOLUTION OF RESEARCH AND MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS	101	(28)
FRANK E. MULLER-KARGER, CHUANMIN HU, SERGE ANDRÉFOUËT, RAMÓN VARELA, AND ROBERT THUNELL
1. Introduction	101	(1)
2. Coastal Ocean Color	102	(5)
2.1 Ocean color satellite missions	104	(1)
2.2 Case 1 and 2 waters: optical classification	104	(1)
2.3 Atmospheric correction	105	(1)
2.4 Coastal ocean color and bio-optical algorithms	105	(2)
3. Applications	107	(14)
3.1 Coastal ocean monitoring and oceanographic applications	107	(23)
3.1.1 River plumes and their utility as coastal ocean circulation tracers	107	(2)
3.1.2 Red tide detection	109	(3)
3.1.3 Oil spill detection and estuarine water quality monitoring	112	(1)
3.1.4 Total suspended sediment estimates in estuaries	112	(1)
3.1.5 Ocean dumping of wastewaters	112	(1)
3.1.6 Chlorophyll and primary productivity in an upwelling regime	113	(4)
3.1.7 The coastal ocean and global carbon cycles	117	(4)
4. Conclusions	121	(1)
5. Acknowledgements	122	(1)
6. References	123	(6)
Chapter 6 BIO-OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF COASTAL WATERS	129	(28)
EURICO J. D'SA AND RICHARD L. MILLER
1. Introduction	129	(1)
2. Background	130	(6)
2.1 Semianalytic bio-optical models	131	(5)
2.1.1 Remote sensing reflectance and IOPs	131	(1)
2.1.2 Diffuse attenuation coefficient and IOPs	132	(2)
2.1.3 Parameterization of absorption	134	(1)
2.1.4 Parameterization of scattering	135	(1)
2.2 Empirical remote sensing algorithms	136	(1)
3. Methods and Instruments	136	(6)
3.1 Water column measurements	137	(2)
3.1.1 IOP measurements	137	(1)
3.1.2 Radiometric measurements	138	(1)
3.1.3 Hydrographic and fluorescence measurements	139	(1)
3.2 Above water remote sensing reflectance	139	(1)
3.3 Discrete measurements	140	(2)
3.3.1 Phytoplankton pigment concentrations	140	(1)
3.3.2 Particle absorption	141	(1)
3.3.3 CDOM absorption	141	(1)
4. Coastal Bio-optical Properties	142	(8)
4.1 Linkages between physical and bio-optical properties	142	(2)
4.2 Absorption and scattering characteristics	144	(2)
4.2.1 Absorption by seawater constituents	145	(1)
4.2.2 Scattering and backscattering	145	(1)
4.3 Light field characteristics and optical properties	146	(4)
5. Summary	150	(1)
6. References	150	(7)
Chapter 7 REMOTE SENSING OF ORGANIC MATTER IN COASTAL WATERS	157	(24)
CARLOS E. DEL CASTILLO
1. Introduction	157	(1)
2. The Chemistry of Color	157	(5)
3. Organic Matter in Natural Waters	162	(3)
4. Biogeochemical Processes Responsible for Changes in CDOM Properties in Coastal Environments	165	(3)
5. CDOM and Ocean Color	168	(3)
6. CDOM and DOC	171	(2)
7. Remote Sensing and CDOM	173	(4)
8. Conclusions	177	(1)
9. Acknowledgements	177	(1)
10. References	177	(4)
Chapter 8 HYPERSPECTRAL REMOTE SENSING	181	(24)
ZHONGPING LEE AND KENDALL L. CARDER
1. Introduction	181	(2)
2. Relationships between R rs and Inherent Optical Properties (IOPs)	183	(3)
2.1 Optically deep waters	183	(2)
2.2 Optically shallow waters	185	(1)
2.3 Contributions of inelastic scattering	186	(1)
3. Hyperspectral Models of IOPs	186	(7)
3.1 The mathematical problem of spectral remote sensing	186	(1)
3.2 Spectral models of αg(λ) and αd(λ)	187	(1)
3.3 Spectral models of αph(λ)	188	(4)
3.4 Hyperspectral models of the backscattering coefficient of particles (bbp(λ))	192	(1)
3.5 Hyperspectral model of ρ(λ)	192	(1)
4. Analytical/Semi-analytical Methods of Solving Equation 28	193	(4)
4.1 Spectral optimization	193	(1)
4.2 Linear matrix inversion to solve Rrs(λ) of deep waters	194	(2)
4.3 Iterative method to solve Rrs(λ) of deep waters	196	(1)
4.4 Quasi-analytical inversion of deep-water Rrs(λ)	196	(1)
5. Advantages and Drawbacks of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing	197	(2)
6. Conclusions	199	(1)
7. Acknowledgement	199	(1)
8. References	199	(6)
Chapter 9 COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ITS APPLICATION IN REMOTE SENSING	205	(24)
HABTOM RESSOM, RICHARD L. MILLER, PADMA NATARAJAN, AND WAYNE H. SLADE
1. Introduction	205	(1)
2. Background on Computational Intelligence	206	(5)
2.1 Neural networks	206	(2)
2.2 Genetic algorithms	208	(1)
2.3 Fuzzy systems	209	(1)
2.4 Hybrid systems	210	(1)
3. Model Development using Computational Intelligence	211	(3)
3.1 Data preparation	211	(1)
3.2 Model structure selection	212	(1)
3.3 Learning	213	(1)
3.4 Model Evaluation	214	(1)
4. Learning Tasks	214	(2)
4.1 Pattern Recognition	214	(1)
4.2 Pattern Association	215	(1)
4.3 Function approximation and other learning tasks	216	(1)
5. Software Tools for Building CI-Based Models	216	(1)
6. Ocean Color Remote Sensing	217	(6)
6.1 Conventional ocean color analysis	217	(1)
6.2 Ocean color algorithms using CI-based techniques	218	(5)
7. Estimation of Phytoplankton Primary Production from Remotely Sensed Data	223	(1)
8. Summary	224	(1)
9. References	225	(4)
Chapter 10 MODELING AND DATA ASSIMILATION	229	(30)
JOHN R. MOISAN, ARTHUR J. MILLER, EMANUELE DI LORENZO AND JOHN WILKIN
1. Introduction	229	(2)
2. Diagnostic/Analytical Models	231	(4)
2.1 Overview of diagnostic model development methodologies	231	(4)
2.1.1 Case 1: ocean chlorophyll a estimates	232	(1)
2.1.2 Case 2: satellite-based models for phytoplankton primary production	233	(2)
3. Deterministic Models	235	(8)
3.1 Box models	236	(1)
3.2 One-dimensional (vertical) biogeochemical models	236	(2)
3.3 Three-dimensional coupled circulation/biogeochemical models	238	(5)
3.3.1 Biogeochemical processes	241	(1)
3.3.2 Forcing and boundary conditions	242	(1)
4. Data Assimilation Efforts using Deterministic Models	243	(6)
4.1 Data assimilation for 1D biogeochemical models	243	(2)
4.2 Assimilation of satellite data into coastal ocean models	245	(18)
4.2.1 Case 1: Ca1COFI and the Southern California Bight	246	(2)
4.2.2 Case 2: New Jersey Long-term Ecosystem Observatory (LEO)	248	(1)
5. Future Directions	249	(2)
6. Acknowledgements	251	(1)
7. References	251	(8)
Chapter 11 MONITORING BOTTOM SEDIMENT RESUSPENSION AND SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS IN SHALLOW COASTAL WATERS	259	(18)
RICHARD L. MILLER, BRENT A. MCKEE, AND EURICO J. D'SA
1. Introduction	259	(2)
2. A Simple Model of Bottom Sediment Resuspension	261	(1)
3. Remote Sensing of Suspended Sediment	261	(2)
4. Integrating a Resuspension Model and Remote Sensing	263	(10)
4.1 A case study, Lake Pontchartrain, LA USA	263	(1)
4.2 Modeling resuspension	264	(3)
4.2.1 Input variables	264	(1)
4.2.2 Numerical model	265	(1)
4.2.3 Frontal passages	265	(1)
4.2.4 Model results	266	(1)
4.3 Mapping suspended sediment concentration	267	(3)
4.3.1 Acquisition and processing of MODIS data	267	(3)
4.4 Coupling modeled resuspension and sediment images	270	(3)
5. Summary	273	(2)
6. References	275	(2)
Chapter 12 REMOTE SENSING OF HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS	277	(20)
RICHARD P. STUMPF AND MICHELLE C. TOMLINSON
1. Introduction	277	(1)
2. Remote Sensing Techniques	278	(11)
2.1 Optical methods	278	(7)
2.1.1 Optical theory	280	(1)
2.1.2 Discoloration	281	(1)
2.1.3 Total chlorophyll	282	(1)
2.1.4 Optical characterization	282	(1)
2.1.5 Photosynthetic pigment absorption	282	(2)
2.1.6 Mycosporine amino acids (MAAs)	284	(1)
2.1.7 Optical separation	284	(1)
2.2 Ecology	285	(6)
2.2.1 Ecological characterization	285	(2)
2.2.2 Ecological associations	287	(2)
3. Applications of Remote Sensing	289	(2)
4. Future Prospects	291	(1)
4.1 Future sensors	292	(1)
5. References	292	(5)
Chapter 13 MULTI-SCALE REMOTE SENSING OF CORAL REEFS	297	(20)
SERGE ANDRÉFOUËT, ERIC J. HOCHBERG, CHRISTOPHE CHEVILLON, FRANK E. MULLER-KARGER, JOHN C. BROCK AND CHUANMIN HU
1. Introduction	297	(1)
2. Remote Sensing to Assess Coral Bleaching	298	(4)
2.1 Coral bleaching	298	(1)
2.2 Regional indirect assessment of bleaching	299	(1)
2.3 Reef-scale assessment of bleaching	299	(3)
2.4 Synthesis: multi-scale applications for bleaching assessment	302	(1)
3. Remote Sensing to Assess Coral Reef Biodiversity	302	(9)
3.1 What is biodiversity assessment?	302	(2)
3.2 Reef-scale geomorphology, habitat and community mapping	304	(4)
3.3 The future: Indirect characterization of biodiversity	308	(1)
3.4 Synthesis: multi-scale biodiversity assessments	309	(2)
4. Conclusions and Perspectives: Multi-scale, Multi-sensor, and Multi-method Approach	311	(1)
5. Acknowledgements	311	(1)
6. References	311	(6)
Chapter 14 REAL-TIME USE OF OCEAN COLOR REMOTE SENSING FOR COASTAL MONITORING	317	(22)
ROBERT A. ARNONE AND ARTHUR R. PARSONS
1. Introduction	317	(1)
2. Why Real-time Monitoring?	318	(1)
3. Coastal and Ocean Products from Ocean Color	319	(13)
3.1 Applications using the backscattering coefficient	320	(3)
3.2 Applications using the absorption coefficient	323	(1)
3.3 Applications using the beam attenuation coefficient	323	(1)
3.4 Applications using the diffuse attenuation coefficient	324	(1)
3.5 Examples of remote sensing ocean color products	324	(8)
3.5.1 Models and imagery	325	(1)
3.5.2 Coastal scales of variability	326	(1)
3.5.3 Spectral ocean optical properties of coastal waters	327	(2)
3.5.4 Vertical ocean properties	329	(1)
3.5.5 Temporal variability of ocean color	330	(2)
4. Ocean Color Products for Operational Use	332	(2)
5. Supporting and Maintaining Operations	334	(1)
6. Conclusions	334	(1)
7. References	335	(4)
INDEX	339