Research Methods : A Process of Inquiry

by Graziano, Anthony M.; Raulin, Michael L.

• ISBN13: 9780205484751
• ISBN10: 0205484751
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2010-01-01
• Publisher: Allyn & Bacon

Summary

This comprehensive book explores the entire range of research methodologies in psychology, using a programmatic approach to introduce topics and build on earlier presentations to increase understanding. It includes the most extensive package of web-based features of any book in this market.

Table of Contents

Preface	p. xxi
Curiosity, Creativity, and Commitment	p. 1
Using the Resources of This Text	p. 2
Exploring the Student Resource Website	p. 2
Using SPSS for Windows	p. 4
Science	p. 4
Science Is a Way of Thinking	p. 4
Asking Questions	p. 5
Science and Art	p. 7
The Three Princes of Serendip	p. 7
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace	p. 8
Leonardo da Vinci	p. 9
Acquiring Knowledge	p. 10
Tenacity	p. 10
Intuition	p. 11
Authority	p. 11
Rationalism	p. 12
Empiricism	p. 12
Science	p. 13
Emergence of Science	p. 14
Early Civilization	p. 14
Greek Science	p. 15
Medieval Science	p. 16
The Scientific Revolution	p. 17
Ethical Concerns	p. 18
Psychology	p. 19
The History of Psychology	p. 19
Women and Minorities in Psychology	p. 22
Modern Psychology	p. 24
The Science of Psychology	p. 25
Science and Pseudoscience	p. 27
Putting It into Practice	p. 28
Chapter Summary	p. 28
Chapter Exercises	p. 29
Research Is a Process of Inquiry	p. 30
The Scientific Process	p. 31
Basic Assumptions of Science	p. 31
Observation and Inference: Facts and Constructs	p. 32
Inductive and Deductive Thinking	p. 34
Models and Theories in Science	p. 36
The Wright Brothers as Scientists	p. 38
A Model of the Research Process	p. 41
Phases of Research	p. 42
Levels of Constraint	p. 47
Putting It into Practice	p. 53
Chapter Summary	p. 53
Chapter Exercises	p. 54
The Starting Point: Asking Questions	p. 55
Asking and Refining Questions	p. 56
Pursuing Your Personal Interests	p. 56
Following Up on the Work of Others	p. 56
Applied and Basic Research	p. 57
Refining Questions for Research	p. 58
Types of Variables in Research	p. 60
Classifying Variables Based on Their Nature	p. 60
Classifying Variables Based on Their Use in Research	p. 62
Validity and the Control of Extraneous Variables	p. 64
Research Ethics	p. 65
Ethical Principles for Human Research	p. 65
Never Let Technology Outrun Ethics	p. 69
Ethics and Diversity Issues in Research	p. 70
Ethical Principles for Animal Research	p. 70
Putting It into Practice	p. 73
Chapter Summary	p. 73
Chapter Exercises	p. 74
Data and the Nature of Measurement	p. 75
Measurement	p. 76
Missing Mars	p. 78
Misconduct in Science	p. 78
Scales of Measurement	p. 79
Nominal Scales	p. 80
Ordinal Scales	p. 80
Interval Scales	p. 81
Ratio Scales	p. 81
Measuring and Controlling Variables	p. 82
Measurement Error	p. 82
Operational Definitions	p. 83
Evaluating Measures	p. 86
Reliability	p. 87
Effective Range	p. 88
Validity	p. 90
The Need for Objective Measurement	p. 90
Putting It into Practice	p. 92
Chapter Summary	p. 92
Chapter Exercises	p. 93
Statistical Analysis of Data	p. 94
Individual Differences	p. 95
Organizing Data	p. 97
Frequency Distributions	p. 97
Graphical Representation of Data	p. 100
Descriptive Statistics	p. 103
Measures of Central Tendency	p. 104
Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics: A Matter of Ethics	p. 105
Measures of Variability	p. 106
Measures of Relationship	p. 110
Standard Scores	p. 113
Statistical Inference	p. 114
Populations and Samples	p. 114
The Null Hypothesis	p. 115
Statistical Decisions and Alpha Levels	p. 115
Type I and Type II Errors	p. 116
Inferential Statistics	p. 117
Testing for Mean Differences	p. 117
The Power of a Statistical Test	p. 118
Effect Size	p. 118
Statistical versus Practical Significance	p. 119
Meta-analysis	p. 119
Putting It into Practice	p. 120
Chapter Summary	p. 120
Chapter Exercises	p. 121
Field Research: Naturalistic and Case-Study Research	p. 122
The Challenge of Low-Constraint Research	p. 123
Examples of Naturalistic Observation	p. 124
Naturalistic Research and Evolution	p. 125
Examples of Case-Study Research	p. 127
The Value of Low-Constraint Methods	p. 129
Conditions for Using Low-Constraint Research	p. 129
Information Gained from Low-Constraint Research	p. 130
The Therapist as Scientist	p. 131
Using Low-Constraint Methods	p. 133
Problem Statements and Research Hypotheses	p. 133
Making Observations	p. 134
Sampling of Participants	p. 137
Sampling of Situations	p. 138
Sampling of Behaviors	p. 138
Evaluating and Interpreting Data	p. 138
Limitations of Low-Constraint Methods	p. 139
Poor Representativeness	p. 140
Poor Replicability	p. 140
Causal Inference and Low-Constraint Research	p. 140
Limitations of the Observer	p. 142
Going Beyond the Data	p. 142
Putting It into Practice	p. 143
Chapter Summary	p. 143
Chapter Exercises	p. 144
Correlational and Differential Methods of Research	p. 145
Correlational Research Methods	p. 146
Differential Research Methods	p. 147
Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research	p. 148
Artifacts and Confounding	p. 149
Understanding Correlational and Differential Methods	p. 150
Comparing These Methods	p. 151
When to Use These Methods	p. 151
Conducting Correlational Research	p. 153
Problem Statements	p. 153
Detecting Demographic, Gender, or Cultural Effects	p. 153
Measuring the Variables	p. 153
Sampling	p. 154
Analyzing the Data	p. 155
Interpreting the Correlation	p. 156
Conducting Differential Research	p. 156
Problem Statements	p. 157
Measuring the Variables	p. 158
Selecting Appropriate Control Groups	p. 158
Sampling	p. 161
Analyzing the Data	p. 163
Interpreting the Data	p. 163
Limitations of Correlational and Differential Research	p. 164
Problems in Determining Causation	p. 164
Confounding Variables	p. 166
Putting It into Practice	p. 167
Chapter Summary	p. 167
Chapter Exercises	p. 168
Hypothesis Testing, Validity, and Threats to Validity	p. 169
Hypothesis Testing	p. 170
Starting Research with an Initial Idea	p. 171
Statement of the Problem	p. 172
Operational Definitions	p. 174
Research Hypothesis	p. 174
The Contribution of Theory to the Research Hypothesis	p. 175
Testing the Research Hypothesis	p. 176
Validity and Threats to Validity	p. 181
Statistical Validity	p. 181
Construct Validity	p. 182
External Validity	p. 182
Internal Validity	p. 183
Major Confounding Variables	p. 185
Maturation	p. 185
History	p. 185
Testing	p. 186
Instrumentation	p. 186
Regression to the Mean	p. 187
Selection	p. 188
Attrition	p. 188
Diffusion of Treatment	p. 188
Sequence Effects	p. 189
Subject and Experimenter Effects	p. 189
Subject Effects	p. 190
Experimenter Effects	p. 190
Putting It into Practice	p. 192
Chapter Summary	p. 192
Chapter Exercises	p. 193
Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity	p. 194
General Control Procedures	p. 195
Preparation of the Setting	p. 195
Response Measurement	p. 196
Replication	p. 196
Control over Subject and Experimenter Effects	p. 197
Single- and Double-Blind Procedures	p. 197
Automation	p. 199
Using Objective Measures	p. 199
Multiple Observers	p. 200
Reliable Reliability	p. 201
Using Deception	p. 202
Control Through Participant Selection and Assignment	p. 203
Participant Selection	p. 203
Participant Assignment	p. 207
Control Through Experimental Design	p. 212
Putting It into Practice	p. 214
Chapter Summary	p. 215
Chapter Exercises	p. 215
Single-Variable, Independent-Groups Designs	p. 216
Variance	p. 217
Sources of Variance	p. 218
Controlling Variance in Research	p. 221
Nonexperimental Approaches	p. 226
Ex Post Facto Studies	p. 226
Seeing All Sides	p. 227
Single-Group, Posttest-Only Studies	p. 229
Single-Group, Pretest-Posttest Studies	p. 230
Pretest-Posttest, Natural Control-Group Studies	p. 231
Experimental Designs	p. 232
Randomized, Posttest-Only, Control-Group Design	p. 233
Randomized, Pretest-Posttest, Control-Group Design	p. 235
Multilevel, Completely Randomized, Between-Subjects Design	p. 235
Solomon's Four-Group Design	p. 237
Statistical Analyses	p. 239
t-Test	p. 239
Analysis of Variance	p. 239
Specific Means Comparisons in ANOVA	p. 244
Putting It into Practice	p. 246
Chapter Summary	p. 247
Chapter Exercises	p. 247
Correlated-Groups and Single-Subject Designs	p. 249
Within-Subjects Designs	p. 250
Using Within-Subjects Designs	p. 250
Analyzing Within-Subjects Designs	p. 252
Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Subjects Designs	p. 253
Matched-Subjects Designs	p. 257
Using Matched-Subjects Designs	p. 258
Analyzing Matched-Subjects Designs	p. 261
Strengths and Weaknesses of Matched-Subjects Designs	p. 261
Single-Subject Experimental Designs	p. 263
Historical Lesson 11.1: Neuropsychology Cases	p. 263
ABA Reversal Designs	p. 266
Multiple-Baseline Designs	p. 268
Putting It into Practice	p. 274
Chapter Summary	p. 274
Chapter Exercises	p. 275
Factorial Designs	p. 276
Factorial Designs	p. 277
Main Effects and Interactions	p. 280
Possible Outcomes of Factorial Designs	p. 282
An Example: Children's Dark-Fears Study	p. 285
Analysis of Variance in Factorial Designs	p. 289
Variations of Basic Factorial Design	p. 291
Within-Subjects or Repeated-Measures Factorial	p. 291
Mixed Designs	p. 291
Solomon's Four-Group Design	p. 294
ANOVA: A Postscript	p. 296
Analysis of Covariance	p. 297
Multivariate Analysis of Variance	p. 298
Putting It into Practice	p. 299
Chapter Summary	p. 299
Chapter Exercises	p. 300
A Second Look at Field Research: Field Experiments, Program Evaluation, and Survey Research	p. 301
Conducting Field Research	p. 302
Reasons for Doing Field Experiments	p. 302
Difficulties in Field Research	p. 304
Flexibility in Research	p. 305
Quasi-Experimental Designs	p. 306
Nonequivalent Control-Group Designs	p. 307
Interrupted Time-Series Design	p. 310
Program Evaluation Research	p. 315
Practical Problems in Program Evaluation Research	p. 315
Historical Lesson 13.1: From Head Start to Heads Up	p. 316
Issues of Control	p. 317
Typical Program Evaluation Designs	p. 318
Program Evaluation Research: An Example	p. 319
Surveys	p. 321
Types of Surveys	p. 321
Steps in Survey Research	p. 321
Types of Survey Instruments	p. 322
Developing the Survey Instrument	p. 323
Sampling Participants	p. 324
Political Polling and Sampling	p. 326
Survey Research Designs	p. 328
Putting It into Practice	p. 329
Chapter Summary	p. 329
Chapter Exercises	p. 329
Final Preparations Before Data Collection	p. 331
Selecting Appropriate Statistical Procedures	p. 332
An Initial Example	p. 332
A Decision-Tree Model	p. 333
Secondary Analyses	p. 341
Caveats and Disclaimers	p. 342
Historical Lesson 14.1: The Robust Nature of Parametric Statistics	p. 343
Pre-Data Check	p. 344
Initial Problem Definition	p. 345
Clarity of the Research Hypotheses	p. 346
Statistical Analysis Procedures	p. 346
Theoretical Basis and Operational Definitions	p. 346
Adequacy of the Independent Variable Manipulation	p. 346
Adequacy of Dependent Measures	p. 346
Are All Controls in Place?	p. 347
Participants	p. 347
Preparation of the Setting	p. 348
Adequacy of Participant Preparation, Instruction, and Procedures	p. 348
Putting It into Practice	p. 349
Chapter Summary	p. 349
Chapter Exercises	p. 349
Research Methodology: An Evolving Discipline	p. 351
New Directions in Research Methodology	p. 352
The Evolution of Research Questions and Methods	p. 352
New Statistical Methods	p. 353
Meta-analysis and Cumulative Knowledge	p. 354
The Impact of Other Disciplines	p. 356
Interdisciplinary Research	p. 357
Moving Research Out of the Laboratory	p. 357
The Impact of Computers	p. 358
Scientific Research and Society	p. 360
Science: An Interaction of Empiricism and Rationalism	p. 361
The Growth of Science	p. 361
Ethical Conduct in Research	p. 362
The Essence of Science: A Reminder	p. 362
Putting It into Practice	p. 363
Chapter Summary	p. 363
Chapter Exercises	p. 363
Using the Student Resource Website	p. 364
Resources Available	p. 364
What to Do If You Have Problems	p. 365
Getting Help	p. 368
Appendix Summary	p. 368
Writing a Research Report in APA Publication Style	p. 369
Structure of a Research Article	p. 370
Writing the Research Report	p. 370
Using Levels of Headings to Organize	p. 370
Sections of a Research Report	p. 371
Writing Style	p. 374
Appendix Summary	p. 375
Conducting Library Research	p. 377
Using the Library	p. 377
Library Resources	p. 378
The Reference Librarian	p. 378
How Research Materials Are Organized	p. 378
Primary Sources	p. 378
Secondary Sources	p. 379
Finding the Relevant Research	p. 379
Abstracting Services	p. 379
Subject or Keyword Services	p. 380
Literature Citation Indexes	p. 380
Search Strategies	p. 380
Searching by Topic	p. 380
Searching Backward	p. 382
Searching Forward	p. 383
Appendix Summary	p. 383
Random Numbers	p. 384
Answers to Quick-Check Review Questions	p. 389
Glossary	p. 402
References	p. 424
Author Index	p. 434
Subject Index	p. 437
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.