Research Methods and Statistics A Critical Thinking Approach

by Jackson, Sherri L.

• ISBN13: 9780534556600
• ISBN10: 0534556604
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-06-14
• Publisher: Wadsworth Publishing

Summary

Jackson's text successfully illustrates the integration between statistics and research methods by demonstrating the ways to use statistics in analyzing data collected during research. Jackson's combined text adopts an inviting narrative style that speaks directly to students and draws them into the material, overcoming the initial apprehension students may feel at having to learn both subject areas at once. She incorporates a student-friendly critical thinking approach and presents examples and exercises to which students can relate. Jackson clearly focuses on the logic of the process and the methodology aspect of research.

Author Biography

Sherri L. Jackson is Professor of Psychology at Jacksonville University in Jacksonville, Florida, where she has taught since 1988

Table of Contents

Thinking Like a Scientist	1	(24)
Areas of Psychological Research	3	(2)
Psychobiology	3	(1)
Cognition	4	(1)
Human Development	5	(1)
Social Psychology	5	(1)
Psychotherapy	5	(1)
Sources of Knowledge	5	(4)
Superstition and Intuition	5	(1)
Authority	6	(1)
Tenacity	7	(1)
Rationalism	7	(1)
Empiricism	8	(1)
Science	8	(1)
The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach and Psychology	9	(3)
Systematic Empiricism	10	(1)
Public Verification	10	(1)
Solvable Problems	11	(1)
Goals of Science	12	(1)
Description	13	(1)
Prediction	13	(1)
Explanation	13	(1)
Basic and Applied Research	13	(1)
An Introduction to Research Methods in Science	14	(5)
Descriptive Methods	14	(1)
Predictive (Relational) Methods	15	(2)
Explanatory Method	17	(2)
Doing Science	19	(1)
Proof and Disproof	20	(2)
The Research Process	22	(1)
Summary	22	(1)
Key Terms	22	(1)
Chapter Exercises	23	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	23	(1)
Web Resources	24	(1)
Getting Started: Ideas, Resources, and Ethics	25	(24)
Selecting a Problem	26	(1)
Reviewing the Literature	27	(6)
Library Research	27	(1)
Journals	27	(2)
Psychological Abstracts	29	(1)
PsycINFO and PsycLIT	30	(1)
Social Science Citation Index and Science Citation Index	31	(1)
Other Resources	31	(2)
Reading a Journal Article: What to Expect	33	(1)
Abstract	33	(1)
Introduction	33	(1)
Method	33	(1)
Results	34	(1)
Discussion	34	(1)
Ethical Standards in Research with Human Participants	34	(9)
Institutional Review Boards	36	(1)
Informed Consent	36	(6)
Risk	42	(1)
Deception	42	(1)
Debriefing	43	(1)
Ethical Standards in Research with Children	43	(1)
Ethical Standards in Research with Animals	44	(3)
Summary	47	(1)
Key Terms	48	(1)
Chapter Exercises	48	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	48	(1)
Web Resources	48	(1)
Defining, Measuring, and Manipulating Variables	49	(19)
Defining Variables	50	(1)
Properties of Measurement	51	(1)
Scales of Measurement	52	(2)
Nominal Scale	52	(1)
Ordinal Scale	52	(1)
Interval Scale	53	(1)
Ratio Scale	53	(1)
Discrete and Continuous Variables	54	(1)
Types of Measures	55	(3)
Self-Report Measures	55	(1)
Tests	55	(1)
Behavioral Measures	56	(1)
Physical Measures	57	(1)
Reliability	58	(4)
Error in Measurement	58	(1)
How to Measure Reliability: Correlation Coefficients	59	(1)
Types of Reliability	60	(2)
Validity	62	(2)
Content Validity	62	(1)
Criterion Validity	63	(1)
Construct Validity	63	(1)
The Relationship Between Reliability and Validity	64	(1)
Summary	65	(1)
Key Terms	65	(1)
Chapter Exercises	66	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	66	(1)
Web Resources	67	(1)
Descriptive Methods	68	(21)
Observational Methods	69	(5)
Naturalistic Observation	69	(1)
Options When Using Observation	70	(1)
Laboratory Observation	71	(1)
Data Collection	72	(2)
Case Study Method	74	(1)
Archival Method	75	(1)
Survey Methods	76	(10)
Survey Construction	76	(3)
Administering the Survey	79	(3)
Sampling Techniques	82	(4)
Summary	86	(1)
Key Terms	86	(1)
Chapter Exercises	86	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	87	(1)
Web Resources	88	(1)
Lab Resources	88	(1)
Data Organization and Descriptive Statistics	89	(33)
Organizing Data	90	(5)
Frequency Distributions	90	(2)
Graphs	92	(3)
Descriptive Statistics	95	(23)
Measures of Central Tendency	95	(4)
Measures of Variation	99	(7)
Types of Distributions	106	(2)
z-Scores	108	(3)
z-Scores, the Standard Normal Distribution, Probability, and Percentile Ranks	111	(7)
Summary	118	(1)
Key Terms	118	(1)
Chapter Exercises	119	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	120	(1)
Web Resources	120	(1)
Statistical Software Resources	121	(1)
Correlational Methods and Statistics	122	(21)
Conducting Correlational Research	123	(1)
Magnitude, Scatterplots, and Types of Relationships	123	(5)
Magnitude	124	(1)
Scatterplots	124	(1)
Positive Relationships	125	(1)
Negative Relationships	126	(1)
No Relationship	126	(1)
Curvilinear Relationships	126	(2)
Misinterpreting Correlations	128	(4)
The Assumptions of Causality and Directionality	128	(1)
The Third-Variable Problem	129	(1)
Restrictive Range	130	(1)
Curvilinear Relationships	131	(1)
Prediction and Correlation	132	(1)
Statistical Analysis: Correlation Coefficients	132	(5)
Pearson's Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient: What It Is and What It Does	133	(3)
Alternative Correlation Coefficients	136	(1)
Advanced Correlational Techniques: Regression Analysis	137	(2)
Summary	139	(1)
Key Terms	140	(1)
Chapter Exercises	140	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	141	(1)
Web Resources	141	(1)
Lab Resources	142	(1)
Statistical Software Resources	142	(1)
Hypothesis Testing and Inferential Statistics	143	(31)
Hypothesis Testing	144	(6)
Null and Alternative Hypotheses	145	(1)
One-and Two-Tailed Hypothesis Tests	146	(1)
Type I and II Errors in Hypothesis Testing	147	(1)
Statistical Significance and Errors	148	(2)
Single-Sample Research and Inferential Statistics	150	(1)
The z Test: What It Is and What It Does	151	(10)
The Sampling Distribution	152	(1)
The Standard Error of the Mean	153	(1)
Calculations for the One-Tailed z Test	154	(1)
Interpreting the One-Tailed z Test	155	(2)
Calculations for the Two-Tailed z Test	157	(1)
Interpreting the Two-Tailed z Test	157	(2)
Statistical Power	159	(1)
Assumptions and Appropriate Use of the z Test	160	(1)
Confidence Intervals	161	(2)
The t Test: What It Is and What It Does	163	(6)
Student's t Distribution	163	(1)
Calculations for the One-Tailed t Test	164	(1)
The Estimated Standard Error of the Mean	165	(1)
Interpreting the One-Tailed t Test	166	(1)
Calculations for the Two-Tailed t Test	167	(1)
Interpreting the Two-Tailed t Test	167	(1)
Assumptions and Appropriate Use of the Single-Sample t Test	168	(1)
Correlation Coefficients and Statistical Significance	169	(1)
Summary	169	(1)
Key Terms	170	(1)
Chapter Exercises	170	(2)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	172	(1)
Web Resources	173	(1)
Statistical Software Resources	173	(1)
The Logic of Experimental Design	174	(21)
Between-Participants Experimental Designs	175	(11)
Control and Confounds	178	(1)
Threats to Internal Validity	178	(7)
Threats to External Validity	185	(1)
Correlated-Groups Designs	186	(5)
Within-Participants Experimental Designs	186	(3)
Matched-Participants Experimental Designs	189	(2)
Developmental Designs	191	(1)
Cross-Sectional Designs	191	(1)
Longitudinal Designs	192	(1)
Sequential Designs	192	(1)
Summary	192	(1)
Key Terms	193	(1)
Chapter Exercises	193	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	194	(1)
Web Resources	194	(1)
Lab Resources	194	(1)
Inferential Statistics: Two-Group Designs	195	(16)
Parametric Statistics for Two-Group Designs	196	(12)
t Test for Independent Groups (Samples): What It Is and What It Does	197	(5)
t Test for Correlated Groups: What It Is and What It Does	202	(6)
Summary	208	(1)
Key Terms	208	(1)
Chapter Exercises	208	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	209	(1)
Web Resources	210	(1)
Statistical Software Resources	210	(1)
Experimental Designs with More Than Two Levels of an Independent Variable	211	(30)
Using Designs with More Than Two Levels of an Independent Variable	212	(4)
Comparing More Than Two Kinds of Treatment in One Study	212	(1)
Comparing Two or More Kinds of Treatment with the Control Group (No Treatment)	213	(2)
Comparing a Placebo Group with the Control and Experimental Groups	215	(1)
Analyzing the Multiple-Group Experiment	216	(20)
Between-Participants Designs: One-Way Randomized ANOVA	216	(13)
Correlated-Groups Designs: One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA	229	(7)
Summary	236	(1)
Key Terms	237	(1)
Chapter Exercises	237	(2)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	239	(1)
Web Resources	240	(1)
Lab Resources	240	(1)
Statistical Software Resources	240	(1)
Complex Experimental Designs	241	(23)
Using Designs with More Than One Independent Variable	242	(7)
Factorial Notation and Factorial Designs	242	(1)
Main Effects and Interaction Effects	243	(3)
Possible Outcomes of a 2 x 2 Factorial Design	246	(3)
Statistical Analysis of Complex Designs	249	(11)
Two-Way Randomized ANOVA: What It Is and What It Does	249	(10)
Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA	259	(1)
Beyond the Two-Way ANOVA	259	(1)
Summary	260	(1)
Key Terms	260	(1)
Chapter Exercises	260	(2)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	262	(1)
Web Resources	263	(1)
Lab Resources	263	(1)
Statistical Software Resources	263	(1)
Quasi-Experimental and Single-Case Designs	264	(18)
Conducting Quasi-Experimental Research	265	(3)
Nonmanipulated Independent Variables	265	(1)
An Example: Snow and Cholera	266	(2)
Types of Quasi-Experimental Designs	268	(3)
Single-Group Posttest-Only Design	268	(1)
Single-Group Pretest/Posttest Design	268	(1)
Single-Group Time-Series Design	269	(1)
Nonequivalent Control Group Posttest-Only Design	270	(1)
Nonequivalent Control Group Pretest/Posttest Design	270	(1)
Multiple-Group Time-Series Design	271	(1)
Internal Validity and Confounds in Quasi-Experimental Designs	271	(1)
Statistical Analysis of Quasi-Experimental Designs	272	(1)
Conducting Single-Case Research	273	(2)
Types of Single-Case Designs	275	(5)
Reversal Designs	275	(1)
Multiple-Baseline Designs	276	(4)
Summary	280	(1)
Key Terms	280	(1)
Chapter Exercises	280	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	281	(1)
Web Resources	281	(1)
Lab Resources	281	(1)
Nonparametric Procedures	282	(14)
Chi-Square (Χ2) Goodness-of-Fit Test: What It Is and What It Does	283	(2)
Calculations for the Χ2 Goodness-of-Fit Test	283	(1)
Interpreting the Χ2 Goodness-of-Fit Test	284	(1)
Assumptions and Appropriate Use of the Χ2 Goodness-of-Fit Test	284	(1)
Chi-Square (Χ2) Test of Independence: What It Is and What It Does	285	(3)
Calculations for the Χ2 Test of Independence	285	(1)
Interpreting the Χ2 Test of Independence	286	(1)
Effect Size: Phi Coefficient	286	(1)
Assumptions of the Χ2 Test of Independence	287	(1)
Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test: What It Is and What It Does	288	(1)
Calculations for the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test	288	(1)
Interpreting the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test	289	(1)
Assumptions of the Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Test	289	(1)
Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks T Test: What It Is and What It Does	289	(3)
Calculations for the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks T Test	290	(1)
Interpreting the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks T Test	291	(1)
Assumptions of the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks T Test	292	(1)
Beyond the Wilcoxon Tests	292	(1)
Summary	293	(1)
Key Terms	293	(1)
Chapter Exercises	294	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	295	(1)
Web Resources	295	(1)
APA Communication Guidelines	296	(18)
Writing Clearly	297	(1)
Avoiding Grammatical Problems	297	(2)
Reporting Numbers	299	(1)
Citing and Referencing	300	(3)
Citation Style: One Author	301	(1)
Citation Style: Multiple Authors	301	(1)
Reference Style	301	(2)
Typing and Word Processing	303	(1)
Organizing the Paper	303	(5)
Title Page	303	(1)
Abstract	304	(1)
Introduction	304	(1)
Method	305	(1)
Results	305	(1)
Discussion	305	(1)
References	306	(1)
Appendixes and Author Note	306	(1)
Tables and Figures	306	(1)
The Use of Headings	307	(1)
APA Formatting Checklist	308	(1)
Conference Presentations	309	(1)
Oral Presentations	309	(1)
Poster Presentations	309	(1)
Summary	310	(1)
Chapter Exercises	310	(1)
Critical Thinking Check Answers	310	(1)
Web Resources	311	(3)
Appendix A Statistical Tables	314	(24)
Appendix B Computational Formulas for ANOVAs	338	(2)
Appendix C Answers to Odd-Numbered Chapter Exercises	340	(7)
Appendix D Sample APA Style Paper	347	(17)
References	364	(2)
Glossary	366	(9)
Index	375