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9780471414520

Contamination and ESD Control in High-Technology Manufacturing

by ; ;
  • ISBN13:

    9780471414520

  • ISBN10:

    0471414522

  • Edition: 1st
  • Format: Hardcover
  • Copyright: 2006-09-18
  • Publisher: Wiley-IEEE Press
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Summary

A practical "how to" guide that effectively deals with the control of both contamination and ESDThis book offers effective strategies and techniques for contamination and electrostatic discharge (ESD) control that can be implemented in a wide range of high-technology industries, including semiconductor, disk drive, aerospace, pharmaceutical, medical device, automobile, and food production manufacturing. The authors set forth a new and innovative methodology that can manage both contamination and ESD, often considered to be mutually exclusive challenges requiring distinct strategies.Beginning with two general chapters on the fundamentals of contamination and ESD control, the book presents a logical progression of topics that collectively build the necessary skills and knowledge: Analysis methods for solving contamination and ESD problems Building the contamination and ESD control environment, including design and construction of cleanrooms and ESD protected environments Cleaning processes and the equipment needed to support these processes Tooling design and certification Continuous monitoring Consumable supplies and packaging materials Controlling contamination and ESD originating from people Management of cleanrooms and ESD protected workplace environments Contamination and ESD Control in High-Technology Manufacturing conveys a practical, working knowledge of contamination and ESD control strategies and techniques, and it is filled with case studies that illustrate key principles and the benefits of contamination and ESD control. Moreover, its straightforward style makes the material, which integrates many disciplines of engineering and science, clear and accessible.Written by three leading industry experts, this book is an essential guide for engineers and designers across the many industries where contamination and ESD control is a concern.

Author Biography

ROGER W. WELKER is founder and Principal Scientist at R. W. Welker Associates, an independent consulting firm specializing in complex contamination, electrostatic discharge, and quality control issues. His technical expertise is in manufacturing technology, cleanroom and ESD protected workplace management, cleaning process development, analysis, and statistics.

R. NAGARAJAN, PhD, is Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. He has fifteen years' R&D experience in contamination control and chemical integration with IBM's Storage Systems Division inSan Jose, California.

CARL E. NEWBERG is President and Director of Laboratory Operations for River's Edge Technical Service/MicroStat Laboratories.

Table of Contents

Preface xv
Fundamentals of Contamination Control
1(47)
Introduction
1(9)
Contamination Sources
1(2)
Contamination Adhesion Forces
3(6)
Contamination Control Methods
9(1)
Glossary of Contamination Control Terms
10(3)
Specifying Contamination in Air and on Surfaces
13(3)
Sources of Contamination
16(2)
Contamination Control Requirements
18(25)
Airborne Particle Requirements
18(15)
Chemical Vapor Contamination Control Limits
33(2)
Ionic Contamination Control Limits
35(2)
Magnetic Contamination Control Limits
37(1)
Surface Contamination Rates and Air Ionization
37(1)
Contact Transfer and In Situ Contamination
38(1)
Airflow Requirements
39(1)
Pressure Requirements and Enclosure Exhausts
39(1)
Maintenance Requirements
40(3)
Other Requirements
43(1)
Summary of Requirements
43(1)
Pertinent Standards
43(5)
References and Notes
46(1)
Additional Reading
46(2)
Fundamentals of ESD Control
48(71)
Introduction and Historical Perspective
48(4)
Glossary of Electrostatic Charge Control Terms
52(4)
Sources of Electrostatic Charge
56(12)
Static Electricity
57(8)
Effects of Electrostatic Charge and Discharge
65(2)
Failure Modes in High-Technology ESD-Sensitivity Devices
67(1)
Requirements of ESD Control
68(7)
Determining ESD Damage Sensitivity
69(5)
Electrically Explosive Device ESD Modeling
74(1)
Building the ESD-Safe Workplace
75(20)
Surface Resistivity of Materials
75(2)
Grounding
77(1)
Identification of and Access to an ESD-Safe Work Area
78(1)
ESD-Protective Floor Coverings
78(3)
Work Surfaces and Table Mats
81(2)
Wrist Strap Ground Points
83(1)
Air Ionization Systems
83(5)
Relative Humidity
88(2)
Chairs and Stools
90(1)
Trash Cans
90(1)
Cathode-Ray Tube Displays
91(2)
Field Potential Limits
93(1)
Tools and Fixtures
94(1)
Conveyors
94(1)
ESD Controls for People
95(5)
Wrist Strap and Coiled Cord
95(1)
Training and Certification Program
95(2)
Cleanroom Gowns and ESD Lab Coats
97(1)
Footwear
98(2)
Gloves, Liners, and Finger Cots
100(1)
Consumables and Accessories
100(5)
Packaging
100(2)
Desiccants
102(1)
Tote Boxes, Bins, and Other Shipping Containers
102(2)
Notebooks and Sheet Protectors
104(1)
Swabs and Wipers
104(1)
Paper
104(1)
Tape
104(1)
Personnel Equipment and Procedures for Its Use
105(1)
Wrist Straps and Wrist Strap Monitors
105(1)
Sit-Stand Protocol
106(1)
Transportation of ESD-Sensitive Products
106(1)
Inspections and Record Keeping
106(6)
Daily Visual Inspection
106(1)
Periodic Instrumental Inspection
107(2)
Testing Protocols
109(3)
ESD Control Program
112(3)
ESD and Contamination Control
115(1)
Useful Reference Standards
116(3)
References and Notes
117(2)
Sampling and Analysis Methods
119(39)
Introduction
119(1)
Classification of Analysis Methods
119(14)
Functional Laboratory Tests
121(3)
Nonfunctional Tests: Objective Laboratory Tests
124(9)
Sampling of Contaminants in Air, in Liquids, and on Surfaces
133(3)
Contaminants in Air
133(1)
Contaminants in Liquids
134(1)
Surface-Borne Contaminants
135(1)
Organic Contamination Analysis Methods
136(3)
Water Break Test
136(1)
Contact Angle Measurement
136(1)
Optically Stimulated Electron Emission Technique
137(1)
Nonvolatile Residue Test
137(1)
Organic Sampling Techniques
137(1)
Central Atmospheric Monitoring System
138(1)
Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis
139(1)
Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectroscopy
139(1)
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy
139(1)
Ionic and Inorganic Contamination Analysis Methods
139(2)
Electrostatic Discharge Methods
141(5)
Tribocharge Testing
141(1)
Bulk and Surface Resistance Measurements
142(2)
Air Ionizer Testing
144(1)
Typical ESD Field Instruments
145(1)
Numerical Simulation
146(1)
Algebraic Predictive Modeling
147(3)
Statistical Analysis Methods
150(8)
Basic Statistical Analysis Tools
150(1)
Gage Capability Analysis of Cleanliness Measurement Methods
151(5)
Additional Reading
156(1)
References and Notes
156(2)
Facilities Design: Contamination- and ESD-Safe Work Areas
158(37)
Introduction
158(1)
Basics of Cleanroom Design
159(6)
What Can Be Called a Cleanroom
159(2)
What It Takes to Make a Cleanroom Work
161(1)
How Filters Work
162(3)
Cleanrooms
165(18)
Non-Unidirectional-Flow (Conventional or Mixed-Flow) Cleanrooms
166(2)
Air Ionization for Non-Unidirectional-Flow Cleanrooms
168(1)
Unidirectional Flow: 100% Filter Coverage
169(5)
Air Ionization in Unidirectional-Flow Cleanrooms
174(1)
Adding a Perforated Raised Floor
174(1)
Balancing a Room Using a Perforated Raised Floor
175(1)
Airflow Balancing After Tool Installation
176(5)
Solid vs. Perforated Work Surfaces
181(1)
Parts Storages Locations
181(1)
Horizontal Unidirectional-Airflow Cleanrooms
182(1)
Cleanroom Construction and Operating Costs
183(1)
Modern Energy-Saving Approaches
184(7)
Unidirectional-Flow Clean Benches
184(2)
Isolators and Minienvironments
186(1)
Point-of-Use Clean Air Cleanrooms
187(1)
Tunnelizing an Existing Ballroom Cleanroom
188(2)
Minienvironments
190(1)
Other Design Considerations
191(4)
Doors and Air Showers
191(1)
Pass-Throughs
192(1)
Equipment Pass-Throughs
193(1)
Service Areas
193(1)
References and Notes
193(2)
Getting Clean Parts and Getting Parts Clean
195(81)
Introduction
195(1)
Historical Perspective
196(1)
Gross and Precision Cleanliness Protocols
197(5)
Approaches to Specifying Cleanliness Levels
199(3)
Design for Manufacturability and Cleanability
202(14)
Design-for-Manufacturability Guidelines
202(1)
Design-for-Cleanability Guidelines
203(1)
Cleanability Indexes for Indirect Cleanliness Measurements
203(3)
Design-for-Cleanability Planning Considerations
206(10)
Design-for-Cleanability Management Considerations
216(1)
Process Design Guidelines
216(4)
Use of Water-Soluble Cutting Fluids
217(1)
Minimizing Work in Progress by Implementing Continuous-Flow Manufacturing
218(1)
Rinsing After Machining
218(1)
Parts Handling After Final Cleaning
218(1)
Soldering and Flux Removal
219(1)
Clean-Then Assemble vs. Assemble-Then Clean
219(1)
Cleaning Processes
220(14)
Particles in Liquid Baths
221(1)
Boundary Layers
221(1)
Ultrasonic Cleaning
221(4)
Spray Cleaning
225(3)
Spin-Rinse Dryer Cleaning
228(2)
Vapor Degreasing
230(1)
Chemical Cleaning
230(1)
Solvent Cleaning
230(1)
Mechanical Agitation Cleaning
231(1)
Manual Cleaning
231(1)
Specially Cleaning
232(2)
Drying Processes
234(2)
Spin-Rinse Drying
234(1)
Forced-Air Drying
234(1)
Vacuum Drying
235(1)
Adsorption Drying
235(1)
Chemical Drying
235(1)
Cost of Cleaning
236(1)
Vendor Process Contamination Checklist
236(10)
Case Studies: Cleaning Equipment and Cleaning Process Design
246(6)
Details on the Clean-Then Assemble and Assemble-Then Clean Procedures
252(12)
Cleaning Strategies
253(2)
Case Studies: CTA and ATC
255(7)
Case Study Results and Discussion
262(2)
Particle Size Distributions
264(8)
MIL-STD-1246
264(1)
Analytical Methods
265(1)
Extraction Methods Tested
266(1)
Results
266(6)
Tool Part Cleanliness
272(4)
References and Notes
273(3)
Tooling Design and Certification
276(60)
Introduction
276(3)
Tooling Design Process
277(1)
Applications and Limitations of Tooling Design
278(1)
Contamination and ESD Control Requirements
279(1)
Maintenance Requirements
280(3)
(Basics of a) Wipe-Down Procedure
280(1)
Maintenance Wipe-Down
281(1)
Engineering Changes
282(1)
Summary of Requirements
282(1)
General Design Alternatives
283(10)
Eliminating Contamination Generators
283(1)
Relocating Contamination Generators
284(1)
Enclosing and Evacuating Contamination Generators
285(8)
Materials
293(15)
Guidelines for Materials
293(4)
Guidelines for Wear
297(4)
Guidelines for Plastics
301(7)
Surface Treatments
308(5)
Paints
309(1)
Anodizing and Related Treatments
310(1)
Electroplating, Electropolishing, and Other Treatments
311(1)
Cautions About Coatings
311(1)
Synergistic Coatings
311(1)
Relative Wear Properties of Coatings
312(1)
Surface Texture and Porosity
312(1)
Selection and Evaluation of Components
313(5)
Pneumatic Devices
314(1)
Linear Motion Guides
314(1)
Electric Motors
314(1)
Process Piping and Point-of-Use Filtration
315(1)
In Situ Monitoring Equipment
316(1)
Hand Tools
317(1)
Tool and Workstation Layout
318(7)
Flow Control Enclosures, Minienvironments, and the Standard Machine Interface
318(4)
Putting the Cleanroom Tool Together
322(3)
Cleanroom Certification of Automated Tooling
325(11)
Statistical Requirements for Sampling
327(4)
Analytical Equipment and Methods
331(3)
References and Notes
334(1)
Additional Reading
334(2)
Continuous Monitoring
336(38)
Introduction
336(14)
Approaches to Monitoring
337(1)
Traditional Airborne Particle Measurements
338(1)
Critical and Busy Sampling
339(1)
Modified Data Collection Protocol
339(1)
Ongoing Use of Critical and Busy Sampling
340(1)
Case Studies: Traditional vs. Critical and Busy Sampling
341(5)
Trend, Cyclic, and Burst Patterns of Particle Generation
346(2)
Case Studies: Other Applications of Continuous Monitoring
348(2)
Summary and Conclusions
350(1)
Continuous Contamination Monitoring
350(2)
Electronically Multiplexed Monitoring
350(1)
Pheumatically Multiplexed Particle Monitoring
351(1)
Continuous Monitoring of Manufacturing
352(7)
Air Quality
352(3)
Process Fluid Purity
355(1)
The Value of 100% Sampling
356(2)
Cleanliness of Surfaces and Electrostatic Charge
358(1)
Evaluation of In Situ Monitoring in an Aqueous Cleaning Application
359(13)
Description of Experiment
360(2)
Experimental Results
362(8)
Management Using ISPM
370(1)
Conclusions
371(1)
Antennas for Electrostatic Charge Monitoring
372(2)
References and Notes
372(2)
Consumable Supplies and Packaging Materials
374(36)
Introduction
374(1)
Cleanroom and ESD Gloves
375(1)
Functional vs. Nonfunctional Testing
376(5)
Functional Materials Qualification Tests
376(1)
Nonfunctional Testing: Objective Laboratory Measurements
377(2)
ESD Considerations in Glove Selection
379(2)
Glove Use Strategies
381(1)
Initial Qualification vs. the Need for Ongoing Lot Certification
381(2)
Glove Washing
383(5)
Early Observation with Natural Rubber Latex Gloves
383(1)
Gloves Washability
384(3)
Nitrile Glove Performance
387(1)
Glove Washing Conclusions
388(1)
ESD Performance of Gloves
388(8)
Materials Selection for ESD Properties
389(1)
Specifying the ESD Performance of Cleanroom Gloves and Glove Liners
389(2)
Testing Considerations
391(1)
Factors That Affect the ESD Performance of Gloves
392(4)
Glove Laundering
396(6)
Cost-Benefit Problem
397(1)
Polyurethane Glove Laboratory Properties
397(1)
ESD Performance
398(1)
Chemical Contamination
399(1)
Wear Characteristics
399(2)
Laundering Tests
401(1)
Impact of Laundering and Reuse on Glove Cost
401(1)
Conclusions
402(1)
Wipers and Swabs
402(3)
Selecting the Correct Wiper or Swab
403(2)
Reusable and Disposable Packaging Materials
405(2)
ESD Consideration in Packaging
405(1)
Carbon-Filled Polymers
405(1)
Metal Loading
406(1)
Topical and Incorporated Organic Agents
406(1)
Copolymer Blends
407(1)
Facial Coverings
407(3)
References and Notes
408(2)
Controlling Contamination and ESD from People
410(41)
Introduction
410(1)
People as a Source of Contamination
410(7)
Skin and Hair
411(2)
Fingerprints
413(1)
Bacteria and Fungi
414(1)
Spittle Droplets
414(1)
Street Clothing
415(1)
Other Forms of Contamination
416(1)
Typical Gowning Protocols
417(9)
Inner Suit
418(1)
Hair Cover (Bouffant)
419(1)
Woven Gloves
419(1)
Barrier Gloves
420(1)
Facial Cover
420(1)
Hood and Powered Headgear
421(1)
Frock, Coverall, and Two-Piece Suit
422(2)
Shoe Covers, Booties, and Special Shoes
424(2)
Suggested Frequency of Change
426(1)
Procedures for Entering a Cleanroom
426(11)
Pre-Change Room Procedure
427(1)
Wipe-Down
427(1)
Hairnet and Face Mask
428(1)
Shoe Cleaners
429(1)
Handwashing
430(1)
Changing into Cleanroom Garments
431(2)
Powered Headgear
433(1)
Footwear
433(3)
Shoe Cleaners and Tacky Mats
436(1)
Behavior in a Classroom
437(2)
Working in a Cleanroom
438(1)
HEPA Filters
439(1)
Raised Floors
439(1)
Glove Awareness
439(1)
Procedures for Exiting a Cleanroom
439(2)
Knee-High Booties
440(1)
Frock or Jumpsuit
440(1)
Head Covering
440(1)
Hairnets, Gloves, and Disposable Shoe Covers
441(1)
Relationship between Attire and Class Achieved
441(2)
Procedures for Entering an ESD-Safe Work Area
443(3)
Behavior in an ESD-Safe Work Area
444(1)
ESD-Safe Work Area in a Cleanroom
445(1)
Garments and Laundry Services
446(5)
Garment Options
446(1)
Measurements of Garment Cleanliness
446(2)
Selection of Fabrics
448(1)
Design and Construction of Garments
448(1)
Selection of a Cleanroom Laundry Service
449(1)
References and Notes
449(2)
Layout of Change Rooms
451(24)
Principles of Efficient Change Room Design
451(3)
Case Studies: Change Rooms
454(13)
Entering the Cleanroom
467(3)
Planning a Trip into the Cleanroom
468(1)
Pregowning Actions
469(1)
Dressing in Cleanroom Garments
469(1)
Finishing Dressing
469(1)
Exiting the Cleanroom
470(2)
Other Considerations
472(3)
References and Notes
474(1)
Procedures and Documentation
475(18)
Hierarchy of Documents and Audits
475(1)
Operator Self-Check
476(2)
Noninstrument Audits
478(1)
Instrument Audits
479(1)
Independent Audits
480(1)
Managing Use of the Audit Scorecard
481(2)
Typical Survey
483(5)
Case Study: Broken Magnet Procedure
488(5)
Definition of a Broken Magnet
489(2)
Recommendations for the Broken Magnet Procedure
491(1)
Reference
491(2)
Index 493

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