Preface

PART A FUNDAMENTALS

(112)

Overview

(12)

Introduction

(2)

Classification of Geologic Structures

(2)

Stress, Strain, and Deformation

(2)

Structural Analysis and Scales of Observation

(2)

Some Guidelines for Structural Interpretation

(2)

Closing Remarks

(2)

Additional Reading

(2)

Primary and Nontectonic Structures

(26)

Introduction

(1)

Sedimentary Structures

(12)

The Use of Bedding in Structural Analysis

(1)

Graded Beds and Cross Beds

(2)

Surface Markings

(1)

Disrupted Bedding

(1)

Conformable and Unconformable Contacts

(4)

Compaction and Diagenetic Structures

(1)

Penecontemporaneous Structures

(2)

Salt Structures

(4)

Why Halokinesis Occurs

(1)

Geometry of Salt Structures and Associated Processes

(2)

Gravity-Driven Faulting and Folding

(1)

Practical Importance of Salt Structures

(1)

Igneous Structures

(5)

Structures Associated with Sheet Intrusions

(1)

Structures Associated with Plutons

(1)

Structures Associated with Extrusion

(2)

Cooling Fractures

(1)

Impact Structures

(3)

Closing Remarks

(2)

Additional Reading

(2)

Force and Stress

(22)

Introduction

(2)

Units and Fundamental Quantities

(1)

Force

(1)

Stress

(1)

Two-Dimensional Stress: Normal Stress and Shear Stress

(1)

Three-Dimensional Stress: Principal Planes and Principal Stresses

(3)

Stress at a Point

(1)

The Components of Stress

(1)

Stress States

(1)

Deriving Some Stress Relationships

(1)

Mohr Diagram for Stress

(3)

Constructing the Mohr Diagram

(1)

Some Common Stress States

(1)

Mean Stress and Deviation Stress

(1)

The Stress Tensor

(1)

A Brief Summary of Stress

(1)

Stress Trajectories and Stress Fields

(1)

Methods of Stress Measurement

(4)

Present-Day Stress

(1)

Paleostress

(1)

Stress in Earth

(3)

Closing Remarks

(2)

Additional Reading

(2)

Deformation and Strain

(28)

Introduction

(1)

Deformation and Strain

(2)

Homogenous Strain and the Strain Ellipsoid

(1)

Strain Path

(1)

Coaxial and Non-Coaxial Strain Accumulation

(2)

Superimposed Strain

(1)

Strain Quantities

(3)

Longitudinal Strain

(1)

Volumetric Strain

(1)

Angular Strain

(1)

Other Strain Quantities

(2)

The Mohr Circle for Strain

(2)

Strain States

(1)

Representation of Strain

(3)

Orientation

(1)

Shape and Intensity

(2)

Finite Strain Measurement

(11)

What Are We Really Measuring in Strain Analysis

(2)

Initially Spherical Objects

(1)

Initially Nonspherical Objects

(1)

Center-to-Center Method

(1)

Rf/Φmethod

(1)

Objects with Known Angular Relationships or Lengths

(1)

Angular Changes

(1)

Length Changes

(1)

Rock Textures and Other Strain Guages

(1)

What Do We Learn from Strain Analysis?

(2)

Closing Remarks

(1)

Additional Reading

(1)

Rheology

(23)

Introduction

(2)

Strain Rate

(1)

General Behavior: The Creep Curve

(1)

Rheologic Relationships

(7)

Elastic Behavior

(3)

Viscous Behavior

(1)

Visoelastic Behavior

(1)

Elastico-Viscous Behavior

(1)

General Linear Behavior

(1)

Nonlinear Behavior

(2)

Adventures with Natural Rocks

100

(8)

The Deformation Apparatus

101

(1)

Confining Pressure

102

(1)

Temperature

103

(1)

Strain Rate

104

(1)

Pore-Fluid Pressure

105

(1)

Work Hardening---Work Softening

106

(1)

Significance of Experiments to Natural Conditions

107

(1)

Confused by the Terminology?

108

(3)

Closing Remarks

111

(2)

Additional Reading

112

(1)

PART B BRITTLE STRUCTURES

113

(90)

Brittle Deformation

114

(24)

Introduction

114

(1)

Vocabulary of Brittle Deformation

114

(3)

What is Brittle Deformation?

117

(1)

Tensile Cracking

118

(5)

Stress Concentration and Griffith Cracks

118

(3)

Exploring Tensile Crack Development

121

(1)

Modes of Crack-Surface Displacement

122

(1)

Processes of Brittle Faulting

123

(1)

Slip by Growth of Fault-Parallel Veins

123

(1)

Cataclasis and Cataclastic Flow

123

(1)

Formation of Shear Fractures

124

(2)

Predicting Initiation of Brittle Deformation

126

(6)

Tensile Cracking Criteria

126

(1)

Shear-Fracture Criteria and Failure Envelopes

127

(5)

Frictional Sliding

132

(2)

Frictional Sliding Criteria

132

(1)

Will New Fractures Form or Will Existing Fractures Slide?

133

(1)

Effect of Environmental Factors in Failure

134

(2)

Effect of Fluids on Tensile Crack Growth

134

(2)

Effect of Dimensions on Tensile Strength

136

(1)

Effect of Pore Pressure on Shear Failure and Frictional Sliding

136

(1)

Effect of Intermediate Principal Stress on Shear Rupture

136

(1)

Closing Remarks

136

(2)

Additional Reading

137

(1)

Joints and Veins

138

(28)

Introduction

138

(2)

Surface Morphology of Joints

140

(4)

Plumose Structure

140

(1)

Why Does Plumose Structure Form?

141

(3)

Twist Hackle

144

(1)

Joint Arrays

144

(5)

Systematic versus Nonsystematic Joints

144

(1)

Joint Sets and Joint Systems

145

(1)

Cross-Cutting Relations Between Joints

146

(1)

Joint Spacing in Sedimentary Rocks

147

(2)

Joint Studies in the Field

149

(3)

Dealing with Field Data About Joints

150

(2)

Origin and Interpretation of Joints

152

(6)

Joints Related to Uplift and Unroofing

152

(1)

Formation of Sheeting Joints

153

(1)

Natural Hydraulic Fracturing

154

(1)

Joints Related to Regional Deformation

155

(1)

Orthogonal Joint Systems

156

(1)

Conjugate Joint Systems

157

(1)

Joint Trend as Paleostress Trajectory

158

(1)

Limits on Joint Growth

158

(1)

Veins and Vein Arrays

159

(4)

Formation of Vein Arrays

160

(1)

Vein Fill: Blocky and Fibrous Veins

160

(2)

Interpretation of Fibrous Veins

162

(1)

Lineaments

163

(1)

Closing Remarks

163

(3)

Additional Reading

165

(1)

Faults and Faulting

166

(37)

Introduction

166

(3)

Fault Geometry and Displacement

169

(10)

Basic Vocabulary

169

(3)

Representation of Faults on Maps and Cross Sections

172

(2)

Fault Separation and Determination of Net Slip

174

(2)

Fault Bends

176

(1)

Fault Terminations and Fault Length

177

(2)

Characteristics of Faults and Fault Zones

179

(8)

Brittle Fault Rocks

179

(3)

Slickensides and Slip Lineations

182

(2)

Subsidiary Fault and Fracture Geometries

184

(1)

Fault-Related Folding

184

(3)

Shear-Sense Indicators of Brittle Faults--A Summary

187

(1)

Recognizing and Interpreting Faults

187

(4)

Recognition of Faults from Subsurface Data

189

(1)

Changes in Fault Character with Depth

190

(1)

Relation of Faulting to Stress

191

(4)

Formation of Listric Faults

192

(1)

Fluids and Faulting

192

(1)

Stress and Faulting---A Continuing Debate

193

(2)

Fault Systems

195

(3)

Geometric Classification of Fault Arrays

195

(1)

Normal Fault systems

196

(1)

Reverse Fault Systems

196

(1)

Strike-Slip Fault Systems

197

(1)

Inversion of Fault Systems

197

(1)

Fault Systems and Paleostress

197

(1)

Faulting and Society

198

(3)

Faulting and Resources

199

(1)

Faulting and Earthquakes

199

(2)

Closing Remarks

201

(2)

Additional Reading

201

(2)

PART C DUCTILE STRUCTURES

203

(132)

Ductile Deformation Processes

204

(34)

Introduction

204

(2)

Cataclastic Flow

206

(1)

Crystal Defects

207

(3)

Point Defects

207

(1)

Line Defects or Dislocations

207

(3)

Crystal Plasticity

210

(7)

Dislocation Glide

210

(1)

Cross-Slip and Climb

210

(3)

Mechanical Twinning

213

(3)

Strain-Producing versus Rate-Controlling Mechanisms

216

(1)

Where Do Dislocations Come From?

216

(1)

Diffusional Mass Transfer

217

(2)

Volume Diffusion and Grain-Boundary Diffusion

218

(1)

Pressure Solution

218

(1)

Constitutive Equations or Flow Laws

219

(1)

A Microstructural View of Laboratory Behavior

220

(1)

Imaging Dislocations

221

(1)

Deformation Microstructures

222

(7)

Recovery

222

(3)

Recrystallization

225

(1)

Mechanisms of Recrystallization

226

(2)

Superplastic Creep

228

(1)

Deformation Mechanism Maps

229

(5)

How to Construct a Deformation Mechanism Map

232

(1)

A Note of Caution

233

(1)

Closing Remarks

234

(4)

Additional Reading

234

(2)

Appendix: Dislocation Decoration

236

(2)

Folds and Folding

238

(32)

Introduction

238

(1)

Anatomy of a Folded Surface

239

(4)

Fold Facing: Antiform, Synform, Anticline, and Syncline

241

(2)

Fold Classification

243

(3)

Fold Orientation

244

(1)

Fold Shape in Profile

245

(1)

Fold Systems

246

(4)

The Enveloping Surface

247

(1)

Folds Symmetry and Fold Vergence

248

(2)

Some Special Fold Geometries

250

(2)

Superposed Folding

252

(5)

The Priciple of Fold Superposition

252

(2)

Fold Interference Patterns

254

(1)

Fold Style

255

(2)

A Few Philosophical Points

257

(1)

The Mechanics of Folding

257

(5)

Passive Folding and Active Folding

257

(2)

Buckle Folds

259

(3)

Folded Multilayers

262

(1)

Kinematic Models of Folding

262

(4)

Flexural Slip/Flow Folding

262

(1)

Neutral-Surface Folding

263

(1)

Shear Folding

264

(1)

Fold Shape Modification

265

(1)

A Natural Example

265

(1)

A Possible Sequence of Events

266

(2)

Closing Remarks

268

(2)

Additional Reading

269

(1)

Fabrics: Foliations and Lineations

270

(24)

Introduction

270

(1)

Fabric Terminology

270

(2)

Foliations

272

(12)

What is Cleavage?

273

(1)

Disjunctive Cleavage

274

(3)

Pencil Cleavage

277

(1)

Slaty Cleavage

278

(1)

Phyllitic Cleavage and Schistosity

278

(2)

Crenulation Cleavage

280

(2)

Gneissic Layering and Migmatization

282

(2)

Mylonitic Foliation

284

(1)

Cleavage and Strain

284

(1)

Foliations in Folds and Fault Zones

285

(3)

Lineations

288

(4)

Form Lineations

288

(1)

Surface Lineations

289

(1)

Mineral Lineations

290

(1)

Tectonic Interpretation of Lineations

290

(2)

Other Physical Properties of Fabrics

292

(1)

Closing Remarks

292

(2)

Additional Reading

293

(1)

Ductile Shear Zones, Textures, and Transposition

294

(22)

Introduction

294

(2)

Mylonites

296

(2)

Type Mylonites

297

(1)

Shear-Sense Indicators

298

(6)

Plane of Observation

298

(1)

Grain-Tail Complexes

299

(1)

Fractured Grains and Mica Fish

299

(3)

Foliations: C-S and C-C' Structures

302

(1)

A Summary of Shear-Sense Indicators

303

(1)

Strain in Shear Zones

304

(3)

Rotated Grains

304

(1)

Deflected Foliations

305

(2)

Textures or Crystallographic-Preferred Fabrics

307

(4)

The Symmetry Principle

308

(2)

Textures as Shear-Sense Indicators

310

(1)

Fold Transposition

311

(2)

Sheath Folds

313

(1)

Closing Remarks

313

(3)

Additional Reading

315

(1)

Deformation, Metamorphism, and Time

316

(19)

Introduction

316

(1)

Field Observations and Study Goals

316

(3)

Pressure and Temperature

319

(3)

Status Report I

321

(1)

Deformation and Metamorphism

322

(3)

Status Report II

324

(1)

Time

325

(4)

The Isochron Equation

325

(2)

The Isotopic Closure Temperature

327

(1)

Dating Deformation

328

(1)

Status Report III

329

(1)

D-P-T-t Paths

329

(4)

Temperature-Time (T-t) History

331

(1)

Pressure-Temperature (P-T) History

331

(1)

Pressure-Time (P-t) History

331

(1)

The Geothermal Gradient

331

(2)

The Deformational Setting

333

(1)

Closing Remarks

333

(2)

Additional Reading

333

(2)

PART D TECTONICS

335

(166)

Whole-Earth Structure and Plate Tectonics

336

(32)

Introduction

336

(1)

Studying Earth's Internal Layering

337

(1)

Seismically Defined Layers of the Earth

337

(5)

The Crust

342

(6)

Oceanic Crust

342

(1)

Continental Crust

342

(6)

The Moho

348

(1)

The Mantle

348

(2)

Internal Structure of the Mantle

348

(2)

Mantle Plumes

350

(1)

The Core

350

(1)

Defining Earth Layers Based on Rheologic Behavior

350

(5)

The Lithosphere

351

(2)

The Asthenosphere

353

(1)

Isostasy

353

(2)

The Tenets of Plate Tectonics Theory

355

(4)

Basic Plate Kinematics

359

(5)

Absolute Plate Velocity

359

(1)

Relative Plate Velocity

360

(1)

Using Vectors to Describe Relative Plate Velocity

361

(3)

Triple Junctions

364

(1)

Plate-Driving Forces

364

(2)

The Supercontinent Cycle

366

(1)

Closing Remarks

367

(1)

Additional Reading

367

(1)

Geophysical Imaging of the Continental Lithosphere

368

(14)

Frederick A. Cook

Introduction

368

(1)

What is Seismic Imaging?

368

(2)

How are Data Interpreted?

370

(1)

Some Examples

370

(2)

The Crust---Mantle Transition

372

(2)

The Importance of Regional Profiles---Longer, Deeper, More Detailed

374

(1)

An Example from Northwestern Canada

375

(4)

Other Geophysical Techniques

379

(2)

Closing Remarks

381

(1)

Additional Reading

381

(1)

Rifting, Seafloor Spreading, and Extensional Tectonics

382

(30)

Introduction

382

(3)

Cross-Sectional Structure of a Rift

385

(5)

Normal Fault Systems

385

(4)

Pure-Shear versus Simple-Shear Models of Rifting

389

(1)

Examples of Rift Structure in Cross Section

389

(1)

Cordilleran Metamorphic Core Complexes

390

(4)

Formation of a Rift System

394

(2)

Controls on Rift Orientation

396

(1)

Rocks and Topographic Features of Rifts

397

(5)

Sedimentary-Rock Assemblages in Rifts

397

(1)

Igneous-Rock Assemblage of Rifts

397

(2)

Active Rift Topography and Rift-Margin Uplifts

399

(3)

Tectonics of Midocean Ridges

402

(3)

Passive Margins

405

(3)

Causes of Rifting

408

(2)

Closing Remarks

410

(2)

Additional Reading

410

(2)

Convergence and Collision

412

(32)

Introduction

412

(2)

Convergent Plate Margins

414

(15)

The Downgoing Slab

415

(3)

The Trench

418

(2)

The Accretionary Prism

420

(4)

The Forearc Basin and the Volcanic Arc

424

(1)

The Backarc Region

425

(3)

Curvature of Island Arcs

428

(1)

Coupled versus Uncoupled Convergent Margins

428

(1)

Basic Stages of Collisional Tectonics

429

(7)

Stage 1: Precollision and Initial Interaction

431

(2)

Stage 2: Abortive Subduction and Suturing

433

(2)

Stage 3: Crustal Thickening and Extensional Collapse

435

(1)

Other Consequences of Collisional Tectonics

436

(6)

Regional Strike-Slip Faulting and Lateral Escape

436

(2)

Plateau Uplift

438

(1)

Continental Interior Fault-and-Fold Zones

438

(2)

Crustal Accretion (Accetionary Tectonics)

440

(2)

Deep Structure of Collisional Orogens

442

(1)

Insights from Modeling Studies

442

(1)

Closing Remarks

443

(1)

Additional Reading

443

(1)

Fold-Thrust Belts

444

(32)

Stephen Marshak

M. Scott Wilkerson

Introduction

444

(4)

Fold-Thrust Belts in a Regional Context

448

(4)

Tectonic Settings of Fold-Thrust Belts

448

(4)

Mechanical Stratigraphy

452

(1)

Geometry of Thrusts and Thrust Systems

452

(7)

A Cross-Sectional Image of a Thrust Fault

452

(3)

Thrust Systems

455

(2)

Overall Fold-Thrust Belt Architecture

457

(2)

Thrust-Related Folding

459

(6)

Mesoscopic- and Microscopic-Scale Strain in Thrust Sheets

465

(1)

Fold-Thrust Belts in Map View

465

(3)

Balanced Cross Sections

468

(2)

Mechanics of Fold-Thrust Belts

470

(4)

Closing Remarks

474

(2)

Additional Reading

474

(2)

Strike-Slip Tectonics

476

(25)

Introduction

476

(3)

Transform versus Transcurrent Faults

479

(3)

Transform Faults

479

(2)

Transcurrent Faults

481

(1)

Structural Features of Major Continental Strike-Slip Faults

482

(11)

Description of Distributed Deformation in Strike-Slip Zones

482

(2)

The Causes of Structural Complexity in Strike-Slip Zones

484

(3)

Map-View Block Rotation in Strike-Slip Zones

487

(1)

Transpression and Transtension

487

(3)

Restraining and Releasing Bends

490

(2)

Strike-Slip Duplexes

492

(1)

Deep-Crustal Strike-Slip Fault Geometry

492

(1)

Tectonic Setting of Continental Strike-Slip Faults

493

(4)

Oblique Convergence and Collision

493

(1)

Strike-Slip Faulting in Fold-Thrust Belts

493

(1)

Strike-Slip Faulting in Rifts

493

(2)

Continental Transform Faults

495

(2)

Oceanic Transforms and Fracture Zones

497

(1)

Closing Remarks

498

(3)

Additional Reading

498

(3)

PART E REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES

501

(127)

A Global View

502

(7)

Introduction

502

(1)

Global Deformation Patterns

503

(1)

What Can We Learn from Regional Perspectives?

504

(2)

Some Speculation on Contrasting Orogenic Styles

506

(1)

Closing Remarks and Outline

507

(2)

Additional Reading

508

(1)

Eastern Hemisphere

509

(47)

The Tectonic Evolution of the European Alps and Forelands

510

(15)

Stefan M. Schmid

Introduction

510

(1)

The Major Tectonic Units of the European Alps

510

(2)

The Major Paleogeographic Units of the Alps

512

(2)

Three Alpine Transects and Their Deep Structure

514

(3)

Inferences Concerning Rheologic Behavior

517

(1)

Evolution of the Alpine System and Its Forelands in Time Slices

517

(5)

Recent Movements in the Upper Rhine Graben

522

(1)

Closing Remarks

523

(1)

Additional Reading

524

(1)

The Tibetan Plateau and Surrounding Regions

525

(10)

Leigh H. Royden

B. Clark Burchfiel

Introduction

525

(1)

Precollisional History

525

(2)

Postcollisional Convergent Deformation

527

(3)

Crustal Shortening and Strike-Slip Faulting

530

(2)

Extension of the Tibetan Plateau

532

(1)

Closing Remarks

533

(1)

Additional Reading

533

(2)

Tectonics of the Altaids: An Example of a Turkic-type Orogen

535

(12)

A. M. Celal Sengor

Boris A. Natal'in

Introduction

535

(3)

The Present Structure of the Altaids

538

(1)

Evolution of the Altaids

539

(6)

Implications for Continental Growth

545

(1)

Closing Remarks

545

(1)

Additional Reading

545

(2)

The Tasman Orogenic Belt, Eastern Australia: An Example of Paleozoic Tectonic Accretion

547

(9)

David R. Gray

David A. Foster

Introduction

547

(1)

Crustal Structure and Main Tectonic Elements

548

(3)

Timing of Deformation and Regional Events

551

(3)

Mechanics of Deformation in Accretionary Orogens

554

(1)

Additional Reading

555

(1)

Western Hemisphere

556

(72)

The North American Cordillera

557

(9)

Elizabeth L. Miller

Introduction

557

(1)

Precambrian and Paleozoic History

558

(1)

Mesozoic History

559

(1)

Cenozoic History

560

(4)

Closing Remarks

564

(1)

Additional Reading

565

(1)

The Cascadia Subduction Wedge: The Role of Accretion, Uplift, and Erosion

566

(9)

Mark T. Brandon

Introduction

566

(1)

Accretionary Flux

566

(1)

Wedges, Taper, and Stability

567

(1)

Double-Sided Wedges

567

(1)

Subduction Polarity and Pro-Side Accretion

568

(1)

The Cascadia Subduction Zone

569

(5)

Comparison between the Cascadia and Alpine Wedges

574

(1)

Additional Reading

574

(1)

The Central Andes: A Natural Laboratory for Noncollisional Mountain Building

575

(7)

Richard W. Allmendinger

Teresa E. Jordan

Introduction

575

(1)

The Andean Orogeny

575

(2)

Late Cenozoic Tectonics of the Andes

577

(3)

Crustal Thickening and Lithospheric Thinning

580

(1)

Closing Remarks

581

(1)

Additional Reading

581

(1)

The Appalachian Orogen

582

(11)

James P. Hibbard

Introduction

582

(1)

Overview

582

(1)

Tectonic Components

583

(4)

Assembly

587

(4)

Closing Remarks

591

(1)

Additional Reading

591

(2)

The Caledonides

593

(14)

Kevin T. Pickering

Alan G. Smith

Introduction

593

(4)

Late Precambrian---Cambrian Extension and Passive Margins

597

(1)

Late Precambrian---Cambrian Arcs, Northern and Northwestern Gondwana

597

(1)

Early-Middle Ordovician Arcs, Marginal Basins, and Ophiolites

598

(1)

Early Ordovician Breakup of the Northwest Margin of Gondwana

599

(1)

Middle-Late Ordovician Subduction, Continental Fragmentation, and Collisions

600

(1)

Middle Ordovician---Silurian Closure of the Eastern Iapetus Ocean

601

(2)

Late Ordovician Icehouse

603

(1)

Ordovician-Silurian Magmatic Arcs Elsewhere in Europe

604

(1)

Postorogenic Continental Sedimentation and Igneous Activity

605

(1)

Closing Remarks

605

(1)

Additional Reading

606

(1)

Tectonic Genealogy of North America

607

(8)

Paul F. Hoffman

Introduction

607

(1)

Phanerozoic (545-0 Ma) Orogens and Pangea

608

(1)

Neoproterozoic (1000-545 Ma) Orogens and Gondwanaland

608

(1)

Mesoproterozoic (1600-1000 Ma) Orogens and Rodinia

609

(1)

Paleoproterozoic (2500-1600 Ma) Collisional Orogens and Nuna

610

(1)

Paleoproterozoic Accretionary Orogens Add to Nuna

611

(1)

Archean Cratons and Kenorland

612

(1)

Closing Remarks

613

(1)

Additional Reading

613

(2)

Phanerozoic Tectonics of the United States Midcontinent

615

(13)

Introduction

615

(1)

Classes of Structures in the Midcontinent

616

(7)

Some Causes of Epeirogeny

623

(2)

Speculations on Midcontinent Fault-and-Fold Zones

625

(1)

Closing Remarks

626

(1)

Additional Reading

627

(1)

Appendix 1 Spherical Projections

628

(3)

Appendix 2 Geologic Timescale

631

(2)

Credits

633

(8)

Index

641

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Earth Structure: An Introduction to Structural Geology and Tectonics (Second Edition)

9780393924671

039392467X

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