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Abbreviations xix
1 The Commodity Case – Introduction 1
1.1 Commodity Cycles – Past and Present 1
1.2 The Most Precious Commodity: Energy 3
1.3 Cheap and Expensive 5
1.4 Federal Reserve 7
1.5 Transformation to a Low-Carbon Society 8
1.6 Commodity Costs 9
1.7 The “Per Capita” Factor 10
1.8 Demographics: India and China 12
1.9 Oil, and First- and Second-Generation Biofuels 13
1.10 Nuclear Energy 14
1.11 Eleven Megaforces 15
1.12 Resource Wars 17
1.13 Geopolitical Shift in Oil Production 18
1.14 Oil Companies, Production, and Transportation 18
2 First- and Second-Generation Biofuels 21
2.1 Second-Generation Requirements 21
2.2 Applications 22
2.3 First-Generation Feedstock: What Speaks against Biofuels of the First Generation? 22
2.4 Second-Generation Feedstock 24
2.5 Biomass 24
2.6 Bioethanol and Biodiesel Production 26
2.7 Biodiesel Refining 26
2.8 Benefits of Biodiesel 27
2.9 The Big Biofuel Inventors 28
2.9.1 Rudolf Diesel 28
2.9.2 Henry Ford 29
3 Biofuels Feedstock: Jatropha curcas 31
3.1 Characteristics 31
3.1.1 Plants in Marginal Growing Conditions 31
3.1.2 Nature Around the Equator 32
3.1.3 Plant Description 33
3.1.4 Where Does Jatropha Originate? 34
3.1.5 Properties 34
3.1.6 Toxicology 34
3.1.7 Whole Plant and Food/Fodder 35
3.1.8 Light in the Dark 35
3.1.9 Medicine 36
3.1.10 Pressing the Oil 36
3.1.11 Biokerosene 37
3.1.12 Breeding Objectives 37
3.1.13 Survival in Harsh Conditions 38
3.1.14 Breeding Method 38
3.1.15 Ecological Aspects 39
3.1.16 Agronomy 39
3.1.17 Harvesting and Man-Hours 40
3.1.18 Mechanical Harvesting 40
3.1.19 Managed and Contract Farming 40
3.1.20 Storage 41
3.1.21 Yield Comparisons and Research 41
3.1.22 Propagation Methods 42
3.1.23 Pricing 43
3.1.24 Jatropha Facts Related to Biodiesel 43
3.1.25 Pests and Diseases 44
3.1.26 Limitations of the Crop 44
3.1.27 Prospects 45
3.1.28 Research Needs 45
3.1.29 Cracking the Nut 45
3.2 Jatropha Products 46
3.2.1 Main Products 46
3.2.1.1 Glycerin 46
3.2.1.2 Medical Applications 46
3.2.1.3 Organic Fertilizer and Animal Feed 47
3.2.1.4 Insecticides and Pesticides 47
3.2.2 Byproducts 48
3.2.2.1 Active Carbon 48
3.2.2.2 Biochar 49
3.2.2.3 Woodpellets 49
3.2.2.4 Polyol 49
3.2.2.5 Paint 49
3.2.2.6 Electricity 49
3.2.2.7 Carbon Dioxide Collection 50
3.2.2.8 Smog Reduction in Chimneys 50
3.3 Advantages and Risks of Jatropha 51
3.3.1 Overview 51
3.3.2 Domestication 51
3.3.3 Potential Negative Effects 52
3.3.4 Variable Yields 53
3.3.5 Diesel Demand, Diesel Cars, and Demography 53
3.3.6 Jatropha Jet Fuel Demand 55
3.3.7 Significant Events 56
3.3.8 Yield Comparisons 56
3.3.9 Global Jatropha Demand 56
3.3.10 How Large is the Biokerosene Market? 57
3.3.11 Energy Security, US Military, and Fuel Costs 58
3.4 Negative Aspects and Risks 58
3.4.1 Jatropha in Ghana 58
3.4.2 Africa’s “Land Grab” 59
3.4.3 More Examples of Land Grab Attempts [2] 60
3.5 Water Use 62
3.6 Invasiveness 63
3.7 Opinion of the UN FAO 64
3.8 Opinion of the World Bank 64
3.9 Code of Conduct 65
3.10 Summary of Jatropha 66
3.11 Where Does Jatropha Grow? 67
3.12 Genetic Improvement of J. curcas 68
References 69
4 Other Biofuel Feedstocks 71
4.1 Pongamia pinatta 71
4.2 Algae 72
4.2.1 Introduction 72
4.2.2 Yield 75
4.2.3 Benefits of Algae 76
4.2.4 Navy Orders 76
4.3 Palm Oil 77
4.3.1 Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil 77
4.3.2 Controversy 77
4.3.3 The Other Oil Spill 78
4.3.4 Clean Start 79
4.3.5 Threat from Facebook 81
4.3.6 Rainforests and Palm Oil 81
4.3.7 Sustainable Palm Oil [12] 83
4.4 Camelina 83
4.4.1 The Basics 83
4.4.2 Rotation with Wheat 84
4.4.3 Camelina as a Biofuel 84
4.4.4 Camelina Agronomy 85
4.4.5 Crop Potential 86
4.4.6 Shock Wave! 87
4.5 Crambe 88
4.5.1 Basics 88
4.5.2 EMPRAPA 89
4.6 Cheers! 90
4.7 Pennycress 90
4.8 Moringa 91
4.8.1 Planting: Seeds and Cuttings 92
4.8.2 Medicinal Applications 92
4.8.3 Biogas 93
4.9 Castor 93
4.10 Halophytes 93
4.11 Sugarcane 94
4.12 Miscanthus 94
4.13 Grass to Ethanol: Napier Grass 94
5 Cropping Methods 97
5.1 Intercropping and Double Cropping 97
5.2 Reliance Life Sciences 99
5.3 Nestle 99
6 Socially Responsible Investing 101
6.1 Principles 101
6.2 Practice: Jatropha curcas 101
6.3 Breaking the Cycle of Poverty 102
6.4 Food First 103
6.5 A Wider Context 104
6.6 Guatemala 104
6.7 Corporate Governance 105
6.7.1 Business 105
6.7.2 Bee Hives/Honey Harvesting 106
6.7.3 Company–Community Committees 106
6.7.4 Education 106
6.7.5 Employment Opportunities 107
6.7.6 Farmland Preservation 107
6.7.7 Fire Control and Prevention 107
6.7.8 Healthcare 108
6.7.9 Hiring Women 108
6.7.10 Outgrower Program 108
6.7.11 Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation 109
6.7.12 Soil Fertility 109
7 Sustainability 111
8 Biomass 113
8.1 What Is Biomass? 113
8.2 Five Basic Categories 114
8.3 Benefits of Biomass 114
8.4 Feedstock of Biomass 115
8.4.1 Trees and Woodpellets 115
8.4.2 Woodchips 115
8.4.3 Palm Kernel Shells 116
8.4.4 Miscanthus Pellets 116
8.4.5 Agripellets 117
8.5 Biomass Potential in Brazil 118
8.6 Sustainability of Agripellets 119
8.7 Agripellets versus Coal and Lignite 120
8.8 Energy Density: Gigajoules per Tonne 120
8.9 Why Is Biomass in High Demand? 121
8.10 EU Environmental Regulations: Poland 124
8.11 The Challenges 125
9 Carbon Credits 127
9.1 Carbon is the Enemy 127
9.2 Jatropha Kerosene: A Monster Market Emerges 128
9.3 Carbon Reductions 130
9.4 Global Warming Around Us 130
9.5 Extreme Weather Patterns 131
10 Biofuels in Europe – EU Policies 133
10.1 EU Policy in 2008 133
10.2 Heated Debates 133
10.3 National Policies 134
10.4 EU Rift in Biofuel Policy 135
10.5 Indirect Land-Use Change 136
10.6 Where Do We Stand Now? 136
11 Biofuels in the United States 137
11.1 Biomass Demand in the United States 137
11.2 Second-Generation Biofuels for the United States 138
11.3 A Growing Shortage of Domestic Oil Production 139
11.4 Fuel Use at the USDA 140
11.5 Partnership with the FAA 140
12 Biofuels in China 141
12.1 Clean Energy? Go to China 141
12.2 China is Going Green 142
12.3 China’s 12th 5-Year Plan 143
12.4 Inclusive Growth 143
12.5 The Beneficiaries 144
12.6 China’s Energy Consumption 145
12.7 Staggering Car Sales Numbers 146
12.8 China’s Diesel Pricing Mechanism 149
12.9 China–United States Biofuel Pact 150
12.10 China’s Biofuels Expansion 151
12.10.1 2007 151
12.10.2 2010 151
12.10.3 An Area of 13 Million Hectares 152
12.10.4 Barren Lands in Southwest China 154
12.10.5 Hainan 154
12.10.6 Biodiesel Refineries 155
12.10.7 Poverty and Jatropha 156
12.10.8 Subsidies 157
12.10.9 Tax Exemptions for Biodiesel 158
13 Biofuels in Brazil 159
13.1 Introduction: Biofuel Industry Leader 159
13.2 Comparison with the United States 160
13.3 What is Driving the Urgency in Renewable Jet Fuel? 160
13.4 Biofuels from Sugarcane 160
13.5 Sugar Production 161
13.6 Ethanol Production and Flex-Fuel Cars 162
13.7 Bagasse, Bioelectricity, and Biofuels 162
13.8 Flex-Fuel¼Biofuel 163
13.9 Fuel Consumption 163
13.10 Greenhouse Gas Reductions 164
13.11 Energy Balance 165
13.12 Sugarcane for Biofuels 165
13.13 Sugarcane Straw: A Growth Opportunity 166
13.14 Bioplastics 166
13.15 Biofuels and Public Health 167
13.16 Cautionary Notes 167
13.17 The Bottom Line 168
14 Biofuels and Biomass in Africa 169
14.1 Dependency on Fossil Fuels 169
14.2 Africa’s Potential 170
14.3 Three African Examples 171
14.3.1 Ghana 171
14.3.2 Ethiopia 171
14.3.3 Nigeria 172
15 General Aviation and Biofuels 173
15.1 Important Aviation Facts 173
15.2 Carbon Reduction of Carbon Dioxide Emissions 173
15.3 Biofuels – Providing Diversified Supply 174
15.4 Lifecycle of Carbon Dioxide 174
15.5 Green Aviation 175
15.6 Why Use Biokerosene? 176
15.7 Global Emissions of Carbon Dioxide 176
15.8 Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group 178
16 Aviation and Carbon Credits 179
16.1 Greenhouse Gases 179
16.2 EU Emission Trading Scheme 179
16.3 Cap and Trade 180
16.4 Carbon in Chains 180
16.5 Biokerosene Targets 181
17 Biokerosene 183
17.1 Airline Industry Lifts Biofuel Development 183
17.2 Safety 184
17.3 Ready for Take-Off – A Monster Market in the Making: Aviation Biofuels 184
17.4 Refining 185
17.4.1 Biodiesel 186
17.4.2 Biokerosene 186
17.4.2.1 Hydrogenation 186
17.4.2.2 Fischer–Tropsch Process 187
17.4.2.3 Nanoemulsion 188
17.5 Benefits 188
17.6 Jet Fuel Standards 189
17.7 Certification of Biofuels 189
17.8 ASTM 190
17.9 Intensive Testing 190
18 Fermenting Fuels 193
18.1 New Generation 193
18.2 What are Hydrocarbons? 193
18.3 What are Enzymes? 193
18.4 What are “Drop-In Fuels”? 194
18.5 Converting Feedstock into Fuels 194
18.6 Cellulosic Ethanol 194
18.7 Biokerosene 196
19 Airline Test Results with Biofuels 197
19.1 Air New Zealand 197
19.2 Qatar Airways 198
19.3 Japan Airlines Test Flight – Biofuels Tested: Jatropha, Camelina, and Algae 198
19.4 KLM – Biofuel Tested: Camelina 199
19.5 Continental Airlines 199
19.6 TAM 200
19.7 British Airways 201
19.8 The Milestone: Lufthansa’s Daily Flights 202
19.9 Cathay Pacific 203
19.10 Air China 205
19.11 Alaska Airlines 205
19.12 Aeromexico: First Transatlantic Biofuel Flight 206
20 Investment Opportunities 207
20.1 The Opportunity of a Lifetime 207
20.2 Eight Ways to Invest in Biofuels and Biomass 208
20.2.1 Agricultural Land 208
20.2.2 Invest in Trees 209
20.2.3 Start Your Own Plantation 209
20.2.4 Your own Biofuel/Biomass Production Company 210
20.2.5 Invest in Private Equity Funds 211
20.2.6 Biofuel Companies 211
20.2.6.1 Introduction 212
20.2.6.2 Company List 212
20.2.7 Mother Earth Biokersene Index 220
20.2.8 Managed Account 221
20.3 Investments Check-Up 221
21 Jatropha Projects, Research, and Joint Ventures 223
21.1 Waterland 223
21.2 KUOSOL: Repsol and KUO 224
21.3 SG Biofuels and Bunge 224
21.4 Shell and Brazil’s Cosan 225
21.5 JOil 225
21.6 Others 226
22 The Future 227
22.1 Conclusions 227
22.2 From Nuclear to Renewable Energies 227
22.3 The Future of Waste 228
22.4 Future of Jatropha Feedstock 230
22.5 Future of Sugarcane 231
22.6 Low-Carbon Economy 232
22.7 Zero-Waste Economy 232
22.8 Our World in 2030 233
Glossary 235
Index 239
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