Semiconductor Physics and Applications

by Balkanski, M.; Wallis, R. F.

• ISBN13: 9780198517405
• ISBN10: 0198517408
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2000-11-09
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

This textbook combines a thorough theoretical treatment of the basic physics of semiconductors with applications to practical devices by putting special emphasis on the physical principles upon which these devices operate. Topics treated are the detailed band structure of semiconductors, the effect of impurities on electronic states, and semiconductor statistics. Also discussed are lattice dynamical, transport, and surface properties as well as optical, magneto-optical, and electro-optical properties. The applied part of the book treats p-n junctions, bipolar junction transistors, semiconductor lasers and photodevices, after which the subject of heterostructures and superlattices is taken up with coverage of electronic, lattice dynamical, optical, and transport properties. The book concludes with treatments of metal-semiconductor devices such as MOSFETs and devices based on heterostructures. Graduate students and lecturers in semiconductor physics, condensed matter physics, electromagnetic theory, and quantum mechanics will find this a useful textbook and reference work.

Author Biography

Minko Balkanski is Professor Emeritus of Physics, Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris.

Table of Contents

Basic characteristics of semiconductors	1	(16)
Qualitative properties	1	(1)
Composition of semiconductors	2	(1)
Structure of solids	2	(8)
Crystalline and amorphous forms	2	(1)
Lattice and basis	3	(1)
Bravais lattices	3	(2)
Crystallographic terminology	5	(1)
Structures of semiconductors	6	(4)
Chemical bonding in semiconductors	10	(4)
Diamond structure semiconductors	10	(1)
Zincblende structure semiconductors	11	(2)
III-VI layered semiconductors	13	(1)
Wurtzite structure semiconductors	14	(1)
IV-VI semiconductors	14	(1)
Growth of pure semiconductor crystals	14	(3)
Problems	16	(1)
References	16	(1)
Electronic energy bands: basic theory	17	(26)
Schrodinger equation	18	(2)
Electrons in a periodic potential	20	(2)
Schrodinger equation for a periodic potential	22	(2)
Expansion of the eigenfunction in plane waves	24	(1)
Bloch's theorem	25	(1)
Electrons in a weak periodic potential	26	(2)
Brillouin zones	28	(2)
Energy bands and energy band gaps	30	(5)
Tight binding method	35	(8)
Wannier functions	35	(1)
LCAO method	36	(5)
Problems	41	(1)
References	42	(1)
Electronic energy bands: semiconductors	43	(30)
Spin--orbit interaction	44	(2)
Electron--ion interaction and pseudopotentials	46	(7)
Orthogonalized plane wave method	46	(1)
Pseudopotential method	47	(6)
Electron-electron interaction	53	(4)
Hartree method	54	(1)
Hartree-Fock method	54	(1)
Density functional method	55	(2)
Excited electronic states	57	(1)
The k p method	57	(9)
Nondegenerate bands	58	(2)
Valence bands of Si and Ge	60	(2)
Conduction bands of Si and Ge	62	(1)
Zincblende structure semiconductors	63	(1)
Extended k p method	64	(1)
Nonparabolic bands: the Kane model	65	(1)
Energy band structures for specific semiconductors	66	(2)
Elemental semiconductors	66	(1)
III-V semiconductors	67	(1)
II-VI and IV-VI semiconductors	68	(1)
Modification of energy band gaps	68	(2)
Semiconductor alloys	68	(1)
Temperature and pressure dependence of band gaps	69	(1)
Amorphous semiconductors	70	(3)
Problems	71	(1)
References	71	(2)
Kinematics and dynamics of electrons and holes in energy bands	73	(16)
Group velocity	74	(1)
Inverse effective mass tensor	75	(1)
Force equation	76	(1)
Dynamics of electrons	76	(1)
Dynamics of holes	77	(2)
Experimental determination of effective masses: cyclotron resonance in semiconductors	79	(6)
Cyclotron resonance of conduction electrons in Ge and Si	81	(2)
Cyclotron resonance of holes in Ge and Si	83	(1)
Effective masses of carriers in compound semiconductors	84	(1)
Experimental determination of carrier charge and concentration: Hall effect	85	(4)
Problems	87	(1)
References	87	(2)
Electronic effects of impurities	89	(12)
Qualitative aspects of impurities	90	(1)
Effective mass theory	90	(3)
Donor impurities in Si and Ge	93	(1)
Effects of ellipsoidal constant energy surfaces	93	(1)
Valley-orbit interaction	93	(1)
Donor impurities in III-V semiconductors	94	(1)
Acceptor impurities	95	(2)
Central cell corrections and deep levels	97	(1)
Impurity bands	98	(3)
Problems	99	(1)
References	99	(2)
Semiconductor statistics	101	(20)
Intrinsic semiconductors	102	(7)
Spherical parabolic energy bands	103	(3)
Ellipsoidal energy bands	106	(1)
Multiple valence bands	107	(2)
Extrinsic semiconductors	109	(12)
Donor impurities	110	(3)
Acceptor impurities	113	(2)
Compensated semiconductors	115	(1)
Majority and minority carriers	116	(1)
Contribution of excited impurity states	117	(2)
Problems	119	(1)
References	119	(2)
Lattice vibrations in semiconductors	121	(32)
Equations of motion	122	(3)
Monatomic linear chain	125	(1)
Diatomic linear chain	126	(3)
Three-dimensional crystals	129	(4)
Elastic continuum theory	129	(2)
Three-dimensional lattices	131	(2)
Lattice dynamical models for semiconductors	133	(7)
Homopolar semiconductors	134	(1)
Heteropolar semiconductors	135	(4)
First-principles methods	139	(1)
Normal coordinate transformation	140	(1)
Vibrational specific heat	141	(2)
Anharmonic effects	143	(2)
Thermal expansion	143	(1)
Thermal conductivity	144	(1)
Impurity effects on lattice vibrations	145	(3)
Piezoelectric effects	148	(1)
Effects of stress-induced atomic displacements	149	(4)
Problems	150	(1)
References	151	(2)
Charge carrier scattering and transport properties	153	(52)
Simple phenomenological introduction to transport in semiconductors	154	(7)
Electric conduction current	154	(3)
Conductivity effective mass	157	(2)
Diffusion current	159	(1)
Displacement current	160	(1)
The Boltzmann equation and its solution	161	(2)
Electrical conductivity and mobility	163	(4)
Energy dependence of the relaxation time	167	(2)
Relaxation times for specific scattering mechanisms	169	(17)
Ionized impurity scattering	169	(5)
Neutral impurity scattering	174	(1)
Lattice vibrational scattering	174	(12)
Magnetotransport properties	186	(6)
Magnetoresistance	186	(3)
Hall effect	189	(3)
Thermoelectric phenomena	192	(3)
Thermoelectric power	192	(2)
Thermoelectric devices	194	(1)
Thermal conductivity	195	(1)
Semi-insulating semiconductors	196	(2)
Pure GaAs	196	(1)
Impure GaAs: shallow impurities	196	(1)
Impure GaAs: deep impurities	197	(1)
Hot carrier phenomena	198	(5)
Distribution function in high electric fields	198	(1)
Gunn effect	199	(1)
Field ionization	200	(1)
Impact ionization	200	(3)
Variable-range hopping conductivity	203	(2)
Problems	203	(1)
References	204	(1)
Surface properties of semiconductors	205	(22)
Surface effects on electronic states	206	(9)
Nearly free electron approximation	206	(4)
Tight binding method	210	(5)
Surface effects on lattice vibrations	215	(8)
Surface acoustic modes	215	(4)
Surface optical modes	219	(2)
Surface vibrational modes in real semiconductors	221	(1)
Experimental observation of surface vibrational modes	221	(2)
Surface recombination	223	(4)
Problems	225	(1)
References	225	(2)
Optical properties of semiconductors	227	(54)
Fundamentals of electromagnetic response	228	(7)
Maxwell's equations	228	(2)
Propagation of an electromagnetic wave in a conducting medium	230	(2)
Optical constants	232	(2)
Dielectric function of a crystal	234	(1)
Optical spectroscopies	234	(1)
Intrinsic interband absorption	235	(10)
Absorption coefficient	235	(2)
Transition probability	237	(3)
Oscillator strength	240	(1)
Excitons	241	(1)
Burstein-Moss effect	241	(1)
Indirect interband absorption	242	(2)
Extrinsic interband absorption	244	(1)
Interband absorption in amorphous semiconductors	244	(1)
Optical properties of free carriers	245	(5)
Free carrier absorption	245	(4)
Free carrier reflectivity	249	(1)
Absorption due to electronic transitions of impurities	250	(1)
Optical properties due to lattice vibrations	251	(5)
Dielectric response of polar lattice vibrations	251	(4)
Lattice vibration absorption	255	(1)
Radiative recombination	256	(5)
Internal quantum efficiency	256	(2)
Carrier lifetime limited by band-to-band recombination	258	(3)
Surface polaritons	261	(3)
Surface plasmon polaritons	263	(1)
Surface optical phonon polaritons	263	(1)
Experimental observation of surface polaritons	263	(1)
Light scattering	264	(12)
Brillouin scattering	264	(1)
Raman scattering	265	(9)
Anharmonic effects on Raman spectra	274	(1)
Light scattering due to electronic excitations	275	(1)
Photoemission	276	(5)
Direct photoemission	276	(1)
Inverse photoemission	277	(1)
Surface state energies	278	(1)
Problems	278	(1)
References	279	(2)
Magneto-optical and electro-optical phenomena	281	(26)
Frequency-dependent conductivity tensor	282	(2)
Propagation of an electromagnetic wave in the presence of a magnetic field	284	(2)
Longitudinal propagation, k + B+	284	(1)
Transverse propagation, k + B+	285	(1)
Macroscopic expressions for magnetodispersion and magneto-absorption	286	(3)
Longitudinal propagation: Faraday configuration	286	(2)
Transverse propagation: Voigt configuration	288	(1)
Faraday rotation due to intraband transitions	289	(4)
Classical model for Faraday rotation due to free carriers	289	(1)
Conductivity tensor deduced from the Boltzmann equation	290	(1)
Analysis of the effective mass obtained by Faraday rotation	291	(1)
Cyclotron resonance absorption	292	(1)
Electronic eigenstates in a constant magnetic field	293	(2)
Quantum mechanical theory of cyclotron resonance	295	(3)
Interband magneto-absorption	298	(2)
Electro-opticla effects	300	(3)
Pockels effect	300	(1)
Kerr effect	301	(1)
Franz-Keldysh effect	301	(2)
Modulation spectroscopy	303	(4)
Problems	304	(1)
References	304	(3)
P-N junctions in semiconductors	307	(32)
Abrupt junction at thermal equilibrium	308	(10)
Space charge region	309	(1)
Charge density variation	310	(1)
Diffusion potential	311	(2)
Electric field in the space charge region	313	(1)
Electronic energy bands in the space charge region	314	(1)
Width of the space charge region	315	(2)
Physical interpretation of the Debye length	317	(1)
P-N junction under an applied voltage	318	(11)
Qualitative effects of an applied voltage	318	(1)
Forward bias: n-type region biased negatively	318	(2)
Reverse bias: n-type region biased positively	320	(1)
Qualitative description of current flow in a biased junction	320	(1)
Qualitative treatment of current flow in a biased junction	321	(8)
Graded p-n junction	329	(3)
P-N junction capacitance	332	(3)
Storage capacitance	333	(1)
Transition capacitance	333	(1)
Applications of p-n junction capacitance	334	(1)
Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown	335	(4)
Avalanche breakdown	335	(1)
Zener breakdown	336	(1)
Problems	336	(1)
References	337	(2)
Bipolar junction transistor	339	(14)
Fabrication of transistors	340	(1)
Physical basis of the BJT	341	(1)
DC characteristics of the BJT	342	(8)
Injected minority carrier concentrations	342	(2)
Currents in the BJT	344	(3)
Current gain in the BJT	347	(3)
Small-signal characteristics of the BJT	350	(3)
Problems	351	(1)
References	352	(1)
Semiconductor lasers and photodevices	353	(18)
General features of stimulated emission	354	(1)
Physical basis of semiconductor lasers	355	(9)
Qualitative aspects	355	(1)
Optical gain in direct gap semiconductors	355	(5)
Transparency current density	360	(2)
Current density-gain relationship	362	(1)
Threshold condition in a Fabry-Perot cavity	363	(1)
Light-emitting diodes	364	(1)
Photodetectors	364	(4)
Photoconductive gain	364	(2)
Responsivity and detectivity	366	(2)
Solar cells	368	(3)
Problems	369	(1)
References	369	(2)
Heterostructures: electronic states	371	(22)
Heterojunctions	372	(1)
Free charge carrier transfer	373	(1)
Triangular quantum well	373	(4)
Square quantum well	377	(5)
Conduction electron energy levels	377	(3)
Hole energy levels	380	(2)
Density-of-states of quantum wells	382	(1)
Excitons and shallow impurities in quantum wells	382	(2)
Coupled quantum wells and superlattices	384	(3)
Double-well structure	384	(1)
Superlattices: periodic coupled quantum wells	385	(2)
Modulation doping of heterostructures	387	(1)
Self-consistent energy-level calculations	388	(2)
N-I-P-I structures	390	(3)
Problems	392	(1)
References	392	(1)
Phonons in superlattices	393	(12)
Qualitative aspects of phonons in superlattices	394	(1)
Elastic continuum theory of low-frequency modes	394	(3)
Dielectric continuum theory of optical modes	397	(3)
Microscopic theory of optical modes	400	(5)
Linear chain model	401	(2)
Three-dimensional models	403	(1)
Problems	403	(1)
References	404	(1)
Optical properties of heterostructures	405	(16)
Optical absorption due to electronic transitions	406	(11)
Intrasubband transitions	407	(1)
Intersubband transitions in the same band	407	(2)
Interband transitions	409	(5)
Interband optical transitions in superlattices	414	(1)
Optical absorption by excitions in heterostructures	414	(3)
Photoluminescence in two-dimensional systems	417	(4)
Experimental techniques	417	(1)
Quantum well luminescence	418	(1)
Problems	419	(1)
References	420	(1)
Transport properties of heterostructures	421	(14)
Effects of a constant electric field	422	(3)
Electric field parallel to the interfaces: E+x	422	(1)
Electric field perpendicular to the interfaces: E+z	423	(2)
Effects of a constant magnetic field	425	(10)
Energy levels and wave functions	425	(1)
Magnetic-field-dependent density-of-states	426	(1)
Magnetoconductivity in a 2D heterostructure	427	(4)
Cyclotron resonance	431	(1)
Problems	432	(1)
References	432	(3)
Metal-semiconductor devices	435	(22)
Metal-oxide-semiconductor capacitor	436	(8)
Effect of applied bias on energy bands	437	(1)
Bias dependence of capacitance	437	(3)
Evaluation of capacitance versus voltage curves	440	(4)
Applications of the metal-oxide-semiconductor	444	(1)
Metal-semiconductor diode	444	(4)
Equilibrium characteristics of the MS diode	444	(2)
Current under applied voltage	446	(2)
Metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor	448	(9)
Introduction	448	(2)
DC characteristics of the MOSFET	450	(5)
Problems	455	(1)
References	455	(2)
Applications of semiconductor heterostructures	457	(22)
Devices with transport parallel to the interfaces: field effect transistor	458	(3)
Analysis of physical processes	458	(2)
Analysis of device performance	460	(1)
Semiconductor-insulator-semiconductor field effect transistor (SISFET)	461	(1)
Devices with transport perpendicular to the interfaces	461	(3)
Heterostructure double-barrier diode	462	(1)
Heterojunction bipolar transistor	463	(1)
Quantum well lasers	464	(4)
Double-heterostructure lasers	464	(1)
Single quantum well (SQW) lasers	465	(2)
Multiple quantum well (MQW) lasers	467	(1)
One-dimensional and zero-dimensional quantum structures	468	(7)
Theoretical background	469	(1)
Fabrication techniques for 1D and 0D structures	470	(1)
Electrical applications of 1D and 0D structures	471	(2)
Devices based on 1D and 0D structures	473	(1)
1D and 0D optical phenomena	473	(1)
1D and 0D optical devices	474	(1)
Devices based on electro-optic effects in quantum well structures	475	(4)
Quantum-confined Stark effect	475	(1)
Quantum well modulators	475	(1)
Self-electro-optic-effect devices	476	(1)
Problems	477	(1)
References	478	(1)
Index	479