Students with Learning Disabilities

by Mercer, Cecil D.; Pullen, Paige C.

• ISBN13: 9780131115392
• ISBN10: 0131115391
• Edition: 6th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-01-01
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

For courses in Learning Disabilities. The new edition of this popular text offers comprehensive coverage of all of the varying theories and practices in the field educational, medical, and psychological incorporating assessment, definition, characteristics, and strategies. A balanced treatment about the characteristics, definitions, causes, and controversies of learning disabilities, each researched-based topic is clearly designed to support both diagnosis and intervention. Throughout the text, best practices have been identified through thorough research and practical examples.

Table of Contents

Part One Foundations of Learning Disabilities	1	(92)
History, Definitions, and Characteristics	2	(32)
Understanding Learning Disabilities---A Historical Perspective	4	(7)
Foundation Period (1800--1960)	5	(1)
Emergent Period (1961--1974)	6	(2)
Solidification Period (1975--1987)	8	(1)
Turbulent Period (1988-present)	9	(1)
Legislation	9	(1)
Service Delivery	10	(1)
Definition	11	(8)
Definitions of Learning Disability	11	(4)
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities Definition	15	(2)
Perspectives on Learning Disabilities Definitions	17	(1)
Commentary on Learning Disabilities Definitions	18	(1)
Characteristics of Learning Disabilities	19	(9)
Specific Characteristics	20	(3)
Heterogeneity of Learning Disabilities	23	(2)
Prevalence of Learning Disabilities	25	(2)
Gender Differences	27	(1)
Learning Disabilities Across Cultures	27	(1)
Perspective	28	(6)
Medical Aspects	34	(34)
Neurology and Learning Disabilities	36	(8)
Central Nervous System Structure and Function	36	(4)
Neurobiological Origins of Central Nervous System Dysfunction	40	(4)
Etiological Perspectives	44	(6)
Acquired Trauma	45	(3)
Genetic/Hereditary Influences	48	(1)
Environmental Influences	49	(1)
Biochemical Abnormalities	50	(1)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder	50	(6)
Current Definitions of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder	51	(1)
Characteristic of Students with ADHD	51	(2)
Etiology of ADHD	53	(1)
IDEA and ADHD	54	(1)
Prevalence and Assessment of ADHD	54	(1)
Treatment for ADHD	55	(1)
Pharmacological Treatment	56	(1)
Guidelines	57	(1)
Controversial Approaches to Treatment	57	(2)
Medical Specialists	59	(4)
Pediatric Neurologist	59	(3)
Otologist and Audiologist	62	(1)
Ophthalmologist and Optometrist	62	(1)
Perspective	63	(5)
The Family and Learning Disabilities	68	(25)
Parental Adjustment	70	(4)
Awareness and Recognition of a Problem	71	(2)
Search for a Cause and a Cure	73	(1)
Acceptance of the Child	73	(1)
Role of the Family and the School	74	(6)
Schools Helping Families	75	(1)
Family's Role at Home	76	(4)
The Parent-Teacher Partnership	80	(5)
Establishing Cooperation	80	(2)
Culturally Responsive Relationships	82	(1)
Parent-Teacher Conferences	83	(1)
Reporting Student Progress	84	(1)
Parent Advocacy and Parent Rights	85	(2)
Perspective	87	(6)
Part Two Assessment and Services	93	(260)
Assessment	94	(38)
Purposes of Assessment	95	(2)
Types of Assessment	97	(6)
Formal Evaluation	97	(1)
Tests of Intelligence	98	(1)
Informal Evaluation	98	(1)
Informal Assessment Measures	99	(4)
Testing Guidelines	103	(2)
Guidelines for Assessing Culturally Diverse Students	103	(1)
Guidelines for Testing Accommodations	104	(1)
The Law and Its Relationship to Assessment	105	(2)
The Challenge of Assessment in Learning Disabilities	105	(2)
The Assessment Process in Learning Disabilities	107	(11)
Prereferral	107	(1)
Referral	108	(1)
Assessment for Identification	108	(2)
Assessing Specific Components of a Learning Disability	110	(3)
Practices in Determining Discrepancy	113	(5)
Assessment for Instruction	118	(9)
Assessment for What to Teach	118	(2)
Assessment for How to Teach	120	(2)
Individualized Educational Program	122	(5)
Perspective	127	(5)
Early Identification and Intervention	132	(26)
Support for Early Childhood Education	133	(2)
Legislative Support	135	(2)
Early Identification	137	(10)
Issues in Early Identification	137	(3)
Prediction Research in Early Identification	140	(3)
Perspectives and Guidelines from Prediction Studies	143	(2)
Practices in Early Identification	145	(2)
Providing Early Intervention Services	147	(8)
Service Delivery Options	147	(2)
Curriculum Models	149	(2)
Effective Practices in Early Intervention	151	(1)
Guidelines for Early Intervention	152	(3)
Commercial Early Childhood Education Programs	155	(1)
Perspective	155	(3)
Adolescents and Adults with Learning Disabilities	158	(50)
Demands Placed on Adolescents	160	(4)
School Demands	161	(3)
Characteristics of Adolescents with Learning Disabilities	164	(4)
Academic Deficits	164	(1)
Cognitive and Metacognitive Deficits	165	(1)
Social Interaction Deficits	166	(1)
Motivation Deficits	167	(1)
Challenges in Secondary Programming	168	(5)
Program Services	168	(1)
Premises of Secondary Programs	169	(1)
General Curriculum Alternatives	170	(1)
Types of Intervention	171	(2)
Secondary Programming Models	173	(2)
Supportive and Alternative Curriculum Approaches	175	(9)
Motivation	175	(3)
Social Development	178	(1)
Academic Remediation	178	(1)
Learning Strategies	179	(2)
Functional Living Skills	181	(1)
Career-Related Instruction	182	(1)
Transitions from Secondary Settings	183	(1)
Instructional Procedures	184	(9)
Acquisition and Generalization of Skills and Strategies	184	(4)
Acquisition and Generalization of Secondary Content	188	(4)
Collaboration with General Classroom Teachers	192	(1)
Adults with Learning Disabilities	193	(8)
Young Adults	194	(2)
College Students with Learning Disabilities	196	(3)
General Adulthood	199	(2)
Perspective	201	(7)
Educational Services	208	(42)
Selection of Special Education Services	210	(1)
Least Restrictive Environment and Mainstreaming	210	(1)
Educational Service Provisions and Related Practices	210	(12)
The General Education Class	213	(5)
The Part- and Full-Time Special Class	218	(1)
The Special School	219	(1)
Reintegration of Students	220	(2)
Movement from Mainstreaming to Inclusion	222	(12)
The Regular Education Initiative	223	(1)
The Inclusion Movement	224	(1)
Rationale for Inclusion	225	(1)
Rationale for Continuum of Alternative Placements	226	(1)
Research on the Inclusion Versus Continuum of Alternative Placement Issue	227	(5)
Perspective on the Movement from Mainstreaming to Inclusion	232	(2)
Program Factors and Least Restrictive Environment	234	(10)
Teachers Teaching Teachers	235	(7)
The Learning Disabilities Teacher	242	(1)
Students Teaching Students	243	(1)
Limited Teacher-Engagement Instruction	244	(1)
Perspective	244	(6)
Learning and Teaching Theories	250	(60)
The Behavioral Approach	252	(1)
Direct Instruction	253	(4)
Academic Focus	254	(1)
Unit of Instruction	255	(1)
Sequence of Academic Skills	256	(1)
Data-Based Instruction	257	(13)
Using Curriculum-Based Measurement to Establish Performance Standards	257	(3)
Individually Referenced Data Systems	260	(9)
Commentary on Data-Based Instruction	269	(1)
Stages of Learning	270	(4)
Acquisition Stage	272	(1)
Proficiency Stage	272	(1)
Maintenance Stage	272	(1)
Generalization Stage	272	(1)
Adaption Stage	273	(1)
Commentary on Learning Stages	273	(1)
Learning Principles	274	(1)
Perspective on the Behavioral Approach	274	(1)
The Cognitive Approach	275	(2)
Specific Abilities Approach	277	(1)
Developmental Approach	278	(1)
Information-Processing Approach	279	(12)
Components of Information-Processing Models	280	(8)
Information-Processing Theory and Learning Disabilities	288	(2)
Implications for Use of Information-Processing Theory	290	(1)
Teaching Methods for Cognitive Disabilities	291	(10)
Translation of Information-Processing Theory into Practice	292	(1)
Instructional Paradigms	293	(4)
Integration of Paradigms	297	(4)
Perspective	301	(9)
Teaching Practices	310	(43)
Planning Activities	314	(25)
Develop Empowering Beliefs About Teaching	315	(2)
Consider Instructional Variables Related to Student Learning	317	(6)
Consider the Curriculum	323	(3)
Consider Instructional Arrangements	326	(11)
Consider Learner Variables	337	(2)
Interactive Teaching Activities	339	(5)
Focus on Teaching Competencies	339	(5)
Follow a Lesson Planning Format	344	(1)
Postinstructional Activities	344	(2)
Reflect About Teaching and Collaborating with Others	346	(1)
Perspective	346	(7)
Part Three Specific Learning Disorders	353	(238)
Oral Communication: Speech and Language	354	(32)
Definition and Prevalence	356	(2)
Theories of Language Acquisition	358	(1)
Approaches to Language Disorders	358	(3)
Etiological-Categorical Approach	359	(1)
Descriptive-Developmental Approach	360	(1)
Components of Language	361	(6)
Form: Phonology	362	(2)
Form: Morphology	364	(1)
Form: Syntax	364	(1)
Content: Semantics	365	(1)
Use: Pragmatics	366	(1)
Language Difficulties Across Age Groups	367	(3)
Preschool and Kindergarten Students	367	(1)
Elementary Students	368	(1)
Secondary Students	369	(1)
Bilingual and Culturally Diverse Students	370	(2)
Assessment of Language Skills	372	(3)
Formal Language Assessment	373	(1)
Informal Language Assessment	374	(1)
Language Service Delivery Models	375	(2)
Pullout Model	375	(1)
Classroom-Based Model	376	(1)
Strategies-Based Model	376	(1)
Language Teaching Strategies	377	(5)
Strategies for Increasing Language Comprehension and Production for Children with Learning Disabilities	378	(2)
Imitation and Modeling Strategies	380	(2)
Commercial Language Programs	382	(1)
Perspective	382	(4)
Reading	386	(46)
Dyslexia	389	(1)
Causes of Dyslexia	389	(2)
Phonological Deficit	389	(1)
Naming-Speed Deficit	390	(1)
Orthographic Deficit	390	(1)
Organization of Reading Skills	391	(3)
Development of Reading Skills	394	(4)
Stage 0: Prereading	395	(1)
Stage 1: Initial Reading or Decoding	395	(1)
Stage 2: Confirmation, Fluency, and Ungluing from Print	396	(1)
Stage 3: Reading for Learning the New	396	(1)
Stage 4: Multiple Viewpoints	397	(1)
Stage 5: Construction and Reconstruction	397	(1)
Assessment of Reading Skills	398	(8)
Standardized Tests	398	(1)
Criterion-Referenced Tests	399	(1)
Informal Assessment	399	(7)
Consensus Documents on Reading Research	406	(3)
Phonemic Awareness	407	(1)
Phonics	407	(1)
Fluency	408	(1)
Vocabulary Instruction	408	(1)
Comprehension	408	(1)
Teaching Reading Skills	409	(1)
Developmental Reading Approaches	410	(6)
Basal Reading Approach	410	(2)
Phonics Approach	412	(1)
Whole Language Approach	412	(4)
Remedial Reading Programs and Methods	416	(5)
Reading Mastery and the Corrective Reading Program	416	(1)
Phonological Awareness Training	417	(2)
Multisensory Reading Method	419	(1)
Neurological Impress Method	420	(1)
Teaching Strategies in Reading	421	(3)
Keyword Method	421	(1)
Reciprocal Teaching	422	(1)
Mapping Strategies	423	(1)
Reading and Study Skills for Adolescents	424	(3)
Reading Rate	424	(1)
Study Skills	425	(1)
Learning Strategies	426	(1)
Commercial Reading Programs	427	(1)
Perspective	427	(5)
Written Communication: Handwriting, Spelling, and Written Expression	432	(48)
Handwriting Problems	434	(1)
Assessment of Handwriting Skills	435	(3)
Informal Assessment Techniques	436	(2)
Teaching Handwriting Skills	438	(7)
Readiness Skills	439	(2)
Manuscript Writing	441	(2)
Transitional Writing	443	(1)
Cursive Writing	444	(1)
Commercial Handwriting Programs and Software	445	(1)
Development of Spelling Skills	446	(1)
Assessment of Spelling Skills	447	(4)
Standardized and Criterion-Referenced Tests	448	(1)
Informal Assessment Techniques	448	(3)
Teaching Spelling Skills	451	(7)
Rule-Based Instruction	452	(1)
Multisensory Approach	453	(2)
Test-Study-Test Technique	455	(1)
Fixed and Flow Word Lists	456	(1)
Additional Considerations	457	(1)
Commercial Spelling Programs	458	(1)
Written Expression Skills	459	(1)
Assessment of Written Expression Skills	459	(7)
Standardized and Criterion-Referenced Tests	460	(1)
Informal Assessment Techniques	460	(6)
Teaching Written Expression Skills	466	(8)
Commercial Written Expression Programs	474	(1)
Computer Software Programs in Written Expression	474	(1)
Perspective	474	(6)
Mathematics	480	(58)
Development of Math Skills	484	(3)
Readiness for Number Instruction	485	(1)
Readiness for More Advanced Mathematics	486	(1)
Math Disabilities	487	(6)
Specific Learning Disabilities in Math	487	(5)
Perspectives on Math Disabilities	492	(1)
Assessment of Math Skills	493	(17)
Examining Math Errors	494	(3)
Determining Level of Understanding	497	(1)
Determining Mastery Learning	498	(1)
Formal Math Assessment with Standardized Tests	499	(1)
Formal Math Assessment with Criterion-Referenced Tests	499	(1)
Informal Math Assessment	500	(10)
Research on Effective Math Instruction	510	(12)
Selecting Appropriate Mathematics Content	510	(2)
Teaching the Acquisition of Math	512	(6)
Teaching Mastery	518	(1)
Teaching Problem Solving	519	(1)
Teaching Generalization	520	(1)
Promoting a Positive Attitude Toward Math	521	(1)
Specific Math Interventions and Activities	522	(9)
Concrete-Semiconcrete-Abstract Activities	522	(3)
Selected Low-Stress Algorithms	525	(2)
Problem-Solving Interventions	527	(3)
Calculators	530	(1)
Commercial Math Programs	531	(1)
Perspective	531	(7)
Social and Emotional Behavior	538	(53)
Social Development	540	(5)
Social Skills	540	(2)
Social Acceptance	542	(2)
Social Competence	544	(1)
Emotional Development	545	(4)
Self-Concept	545	(1)
Motivation	546	(1)
Anxiety	547	(1)
Loneliness	547	(1)
Depression and Suicide	547	(1)
Temperament and Resiliency	548	(1)
Behavior Development	549	(4)
Adaptive Behavior	549	(1)
Disruptive Behavior	550	(1)
Hyperactivity	550	(1)
Inattention and Distractibility	551	(1)
Impulsivity	552	(1)
Substance Abuse	552	(1)
Etiology of Social and Emotional Behavior Problems	553	(2)
Primary Cause	553	(1)
Secondary Cause	554	(1)
Social Learning Theory	554	(1)
Causes and Treatments	554	(1)
Assessment of Social and Emotional Behavior	555	(9)
Commercial Observer-Rater Instruments	555	(1)
Commercial Measures of Adaptive Behavior	556	(1)
Self-Report Instruments	556	(2)
Sociometric Techniques	558	(3)
Naturalistion Observations	561	(3)
Perspective on Assessment	564	(1)
General Techniques for Promoting Social, Emotional, and Behavior Development	564	(12)
Teach for Success	564	(1)
Focus on Promoting Proactivity	565	(2)
Promote Cooperation	567	(1)
Teach Self-Management	568	(1)
Model Target Behaviors and Attributes	569	(1)
Focus on Motivation Through Behavior Modification	570	(6)
Specific Techniques for Promoting Social Development	576	(2)
Social Skills Training	577	(1)
Specific Techniques for Promoting Emotional Development	578	(4)
Bibliotherapy	578	(1)
Attribution Retraining	579	(1)
Life-Space Interviewing	580	(1)
Techniques for Improving Mood States	581	(1)
Techniques for Promoting Behavior Development	582	(1)
Commercial Programs for Social and Emotional Behavior	582	(1)
Perspective	583	(8)
Name Index	591	(10)
Subject Index	601

Excerpts

Learning disabilities is a dynamic and expanding field. Individuals with learning disabilities exist across all ages, socioeconomic levels, and ethnic groups; their problems range from mild to severe. Professionals as well as parents continue to seek greater knowledge about the nature of learning disabilities and proven methods for enhancing academic, social, and vocational success for people with learning disabilities. This book offers comprehensive coverage of the field. Many theories and practices have developed quickly. Some have been challenged and found to be lacking. Thus, many practices have been refined, whereas others have either waned or grown. In this text, we have tried to present a balanced picture of the varying theories and practices (educational, medical, and psychological), and we hope this allows you to develop your own perspective. The book has been revised to include recent developments. This sixth edition reflects the latest trends in the field of learning disabilities, explores current issues, and highlights identification, including response to treatment. The 1997 reauthorization of IDEA has been included. However, as this edition goes to press, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act is undergoing reauthorization: We have addressed this issue throughout the text and will provide updates on the reauthorization on the Companion Website. The book is written from a perspective of what research indicates are the best practices in the field of learning disabilities in regards to identification, assessment, and intervention. Noteworthy changes in this edition include expanded coverage of cultural diversity, consensus documents in reading instruction, effective practices to prevent and remediate reading difficulties, and effective assessment and teaching practices in the academic areas based on recent meta-analyses of the best instructional practices. In addition, this edition has been streamlined to provide concise but complete information. Many of the additional resources found in previous editions, including reviews of specific curricula and materials, are provided on a new Companion Website. Each chapter has been refined extensively to provide comprehensive yet timely coverage of pertinent information. In addition to covering topics that facilitate an understanding of learning disabilities, we have included a strong focus on how to teach and manage students with learning disabilities. Why is the sixth edition ofStudents with Learning Disabilitiesa worthwhile book for your learning disabilities introductory class? It is as current as possible, and you will find the research to be well integrated. While an effort has been made to provide a definitive point of view, we also have tried to treat fairly the many approaches to learning disabilities. We have attempted to describe how schools really function in this country in an effort to assist you in handling situations in your current or future classrooms. In the field of learning disabilities, there are no easy answers. It is fraught with controversy, ambivalence, and vagueness, and it lacks consensus about many basic issues. We have made every effort to present the best of what we know. It is our hope that this book stimulates you to discover even more about the nature and needs of individuals with learning disabilities.