Sustainable Energy : Choosing among Options

by Tester, Jefferson W.; Drake, Elisabeth M.; Golay, Michael W.; Driscoll, Michael J.; Peters, William. A.

• ISBN13: 9780262201537
• ISBN10: 0262201534
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-07-01
• Publisher: Mit Pr

Summary

Human survival depends on a continuing energy supply, but the need for ever-increasing amounts of energy poses a dilemma: How can we provide the benefits of energy to the population of the globe without damaging the environment, negatively affecting social stability, or threatening the well-being of future generations? The solution will lie in finding sustainable energy sources and more efficient means of converting and utilizing energy. This textbook is designed for advanced undergraduate and graduate students as well as others who have an interest in exploring energy resource options and technologies with a view toward achieving sustainability. It clearly presents the trade-offs and uncertainties inherent in evaluating and choosing different energy options and provides a framework for assessing policy solutions. Sustainable Energyincludes illustrative examples, problems, references for further reading, and links to relevant Web sites. Outside the classroom, the book is a resource for government, industry, and nonprofit organizations. The first six chapters provide the tools for making informed energy choices. They examine the broader aspects of energy use, including resource estimation, environmental effects, and economic evaluations. Chapters 7-15 review the main energy sources of today and tomorrow, including fossil fuels, nuclear power, biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, wind energy, and solar energy, examining their technologies, environmental impacts, and economics. The remaining chapters treat energy storage, transmission, and distribution; the electric power sector; transportation; industrial energy usage; commercial and residential buildings; and synergistic complex systems. Sustainable Energyaddresses the challenges of integrating diverse factors and the importance for future generations of the energy choices we make today.

Author Biography

Jefferson W. Tester is H.P. Meissner Professor of Chemical Engineering Elisabeth M. Drake is Associate Director of the Energy Laboratory, Emeritus Michael J. Driscoll is Professor of Nuclear Engineering, Emeritus Michael W. Golay is Professor of Nuclear Engineering William A. Peters is Executive Director of the Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies, all at MIT

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
Acknowledgments	xxi
Sustainable Energy---The Engine of Sustainable Development	1	(50)
Sustainable Energy: The Engine of Sustainable Development	2	(7)
Defining Energy---Scientific and Engineering Foundations	9	(8)
Aspects of Energy Production and Consumption	17	(7)
National and Global Patterns of Energy Supply and Utilization	24	(8)
Environmental Effects of Energy---Gaining Understanding	32	(9)
Confronting the Energy-Prosperity-Environmental Dilemma	41	(4)
Mathematical Representations of Sustainability	45	(2)
The Rest of This Book	47	(4)
References	48	(3)
Estimation and Evaluation of Energy Resources	51	(36)
Units of Measurement: Energy and Power	52	(2)
Comparison of Different Forms of Energy	54	(2)
The Energy Lifecycle	56	(8)
Estimation and Valuation of Fossil Mineral Fuels, Especially Petroleum	64	(18)
Asking the right questions and avoiding the unanswerable ones	64	(1)
Perspectives from mineral geology	65	(1)
Two interpretations of hydrocarbon fuel economics	66	(7)
Categories of reserves	73	(2)
Forecasting mineral fuel prices and supplies	75	(4)
Geopolitical factors and energy supply ``crises''	79	(3)
Lessons for Sustainable Development	82	(1)
Summary and Conclusions	83	(4)
References	83	(4)
Technical Performance: Allowability, Efficiency, Production Rates	87	(50)
Relation to Sustainability	88	(2)
An Introduction to Methods of Thermodynamic Analysis	90	(25)
Allowability, efficiency, and the Second Law	90	(2)
More about entropy	92	(6)
Analysis of ideal (Carnot) heat engines	98	(2)
Analysis of real world (irreversible) heat engines	100	(15)
The Importance of Rate Processes in Energy Conversion	115	(1)
Chemical Rate Processes	116	(4)
The Physical Transport of Heat	120	(9)
Foundations for quantitative analysis	120	(2)
Thermal conduction	122	(1)
Convective heat transfer	123	(1)
Radiative heat transmission	124	(4)
Heat transfer by tandem mechanisms	128	(1)
Use and Abuse of Time Scales	129	(2)
Energy Resources and Energy Conversion---Fertile Common Ground	131	(6)
References	131	(3)
Problems	134	(3)
Local, Regional, and Global Environmental Effects of Energy	137	(70)
How Energy Systems Interact with the Environment	138	(9)
Known and potential environmental threats	138	(2)
Origin of harmful agents	140	(3)
Length and time scales for environmental impacts	143	(4)
Adverse Environmental Effects Over Local and Regional Length Scales	147	(11)
Ambient air pollution	147	(9)
Adulteration of soil, water, and indoor air	156	(1)
Transport and transformation of air, ground, and water contamination	157	(1)
Global Climate Change: Environmental Consequences over Planetary-Length Scales	158	(26)
Introduction	158	(2)
Basic science of the greenhouse effect	160	(7)
Energy and the greenhouse effect	167	(5)
Greenhouse consequences: Consensus, unknowns, misconceptions	172	(6)
Technological and policy response strategies: Evolutionary and revolutionary	178	(6)
Attribution of Environmental Damage to Energy Utilization	184	(7)
Diagnosing receptor jeopardy and injury	185	(5)
Source identification	190	(1)
Risk and uncertainty	191	(1)
Methods of Environmental Protection	191	(5)
Energy and the environment as an ensemble of coupled complex systems	191	(1)
Earth-system ecology as a working paradigm	192	(3)
Public policy instruments	195	(1)
Technological remedies	196	(1)
Environmental Benefits of Energy	196	(1)
Pollution prevention and environmental restoration	196	(1)
Social and economic foundations for environmental stewardship	197	(1)
Implications for Sustainable Energy	197	(10)
Environmental footprints as sustainability metrics	197	(1)
The unusual challenge of global climate change	198	(1)
Problems	199	(1)
Appendix: Lessons from SO2 Emissions Trading	200	(3)
References	203	(4)
Project Economic Evaluation	207	(52)
Introduction	208	(3)
Time Value of Money Mechanics	211	(11)
Basic aspects	211	(2)
Application to a typical cash flow scenario	213	(2)
Derivation of relations	215	(5)
Pitfalls, errors, and ambiguities	220	(2)
Current versus Constant-Dollar Comparisons	222	(3)
Simple Payback	225	(1)
Economy of Scale and Learning Curve	225	(4)
Allowing for Uncertainty	229	(3)
Overview	229	(1)
Analytic uncertainty propagation	229	(1)
The Monte Carlo method	230	(2)
Decision tree method	232	(1)
Accounting for Externalities	232	(7)
Energy Accounting	239	(2)
Modeling Beyond the Project Level	241	(2)
Chapter Summary	243	(16)
Appendix A	245	(2)
Appendix B	247	(4)
References	251	(3)
Problems	254	(5)
Energy Systems and Sustainability Metrics	259	(36)
Introduction and Historical Notes	260	(3)
Energy from a Systems Perspective	263	(8)
Systems Analysis Approaches	271	(8)
Lifecycle analysis	273	(2)
Simulation models	275	(1)
Risk-based models	276	(3)
Measures of Sustainability	279	(5)
General indicators of sustainability	280	(2)
Categories of indicators	282	(2)
Drivers of Societal Change	284	(3)
Some General Principles of Sustainable Development	287	(8)
References	289	(3)
Web Sites of Interest	292	(1)
Problems	292	(3)
Fossil Fuels and Fossil Energy	295	(66)
Introduction	296	(6)
Definition and types of fossil fuels	296	(4)
Historical and current contributions of fossil fuels to human progress	300	(2)
Sustainability: Challenges and opportunities	302	(1)
The Fossil Fuel Resource Base	302	(4)
How long will fossil fuels last?	302	(1)
``Unconventional'' naturally occurring fossil fuels	303	(2)
Fossil resources and sustainability	305	(1)
Harvesting Energy and Energy Products from Fossil Fuels	306	(23)
Exploration, discovery, and extraction of fuels	306	(1)
Fuel storage and transportation	306	(1)
Fuel conversion	307	(10)
Fuel combustion	317	(7)
Direct generation of electricity: Fuel cells	324	(5)
Manufacture of chemicals and other products	329	(1)
Environmental Impacts	329	(8)
Pollutant sources and remedies: The fuel itself	329	(3)
Pollutant sources and remedies: Combustion pathologies	332	(1)
Pollutant sources and remedies: Carbon management	333	(4)
Geopolitical and Sociological Factors	337	(4)
Globalization of fossil energy sources	337	(1)
Equitable access, Revenue scaffolds, ``American Graffiti''	338	(3)
Economics of Fossil Energy	341	(5)
Some Principles for Evaluating Fossil and Other Energy Technology Options	346	(7)
Emerging Technologies	353	(1)
Closure: Why Are Fossil Fuels Important to Sustainable Energy?	353	(8)
References	355	(4)
Problems	359	(2)
Nuclear Power	361	(46)
Nuclear History	362	(2)
Physics	364	(1)
Nuclear Reactors	364	(4)
Burning and Breeding	368	(1)
Nuclear Power Economics	369	(1)
The Three Mile Island 2 Nuclear Power Plant Accident	370	(2)
Reactor Safety	372	(2)
Light-Water Reactors (LWR)	374	(1)
Pressurized-Water Reactor (PWR) Technologies	374	(3)
Boiling-Water Reactor (BWR) Technology	377	(1)
RBMK Reactors	377	(3)
Heavy-Water Cooled Technologies	380	(1)
Gas-Cooled Reactor Technologies	380	(4)
Liquid-Metal Reactor Technologies	384	(1)
Actinide Burning	385	(2)
Advanced Reactors	387	(1)
Nuclear Power Fuel Resources	387	(2)
Fuel Cycle	389	(8)
Uranium mining	390	(1)
Uranium milling	390	(1)
Conversion	391	(1)
Enrichment	391	(1)
Fuel fabrication	392	(1)
Spent fuel	392	(1)
Reprocessing	393	(1)
High Level Wastes (HLW) disposal	394	(3)
Fusion Energy	397	(7)
Introduction	397	(1)
Why is fusion more difficult than fission?	398	(2)
Magnetic fusion energy	400	(1)
Inertial fusion energy	401	(1)
Prospects for the future	402	(2)
Future Prospects for Nuclear Power	404	(3)
References	405	(1)
Additional Resources	406	(1)
Renewable Energy in Context	407	(12)
Introduction and Historical Notes	408	(2)
Resource Assessment	410	(2)
Environmental Impacts	412	(1)
Technology Development and Deployment	413	(1)
The Importance of Storage	414	(1)
Connecting Renewables to Hydrogen	414	(1)
The Future for Renewable Energy	415	(1)
Additional Resources	416	(3)
References	416	(3)
Biomass Energy	419	(34)
Characterizing the Biomass Resource	420	(4)
Biomass Relevance to Energy Production	424	(5)
Utilization options	424	(1)
Advantages and disadvantages	424	(3)
More on resources	427	(2)
Chemical and Physical Properties Relevant to Energy Production	429	(1)
Biomass Production: Useful Scaling Parameters	430	(2)
Thermal Conversion of Biomass	432	(5)
Biomass to electricity	432	(2)
Biomass to fuels	434	(3)
Bioconversion	437	(3)
Introduction	437	(1)
Biogas	437	(3)
Fermentation ethanol from corn and cellulosic biomass	440	(1)
Environmental Issues	440	(3)
Economics	443	(1)
Enabling Research and Development	444	(1)
Disruptive Technology	444	(2)
Summary	446	(7)
References	446	(3)
Web Sites of Interest	449	(1)
Problems	449	(4)
Geothermal Energy	453	(66)
Characterization of Geothermal Resource Types	454	(10)
Definition in general	454	(3)
Natural hydrothermal systems	457	(2)
Geopressured systems	459	(1)
Hot dry rock	459	(2)
Magma	461	(1)
Ultra low-grade systems	461	(1)
Markets for geothermal energy	462	(2)
Geothermal Resource Size and Distribution	464	(4)
Overall framework and terminology	464	(1)
Quality issues	465	(1)
Resource base and reserve estimates	466	(2)
Practical Operation and Equipment for Recovering Energy	468	(19)
Drilling and field development	468	(1)
Reservoir fluid production	469	(4)
Non-electric, direct-heat utilization	473	(4)
Electric power generation	477	(4)
Equipment	481	(4)
Power cycle performance	485	(2)
Sustainability Attributes	487	(4)
Reservoir lifetime issues	487	(1)
Environmental impacts	488	(2)
Dispatchable heat and power delivery	490	(1)
Suitability for developing countries	490	(1)
Potential for CO2 reduction and pollution prevention	490	(1)
Status of Geothermal Technology Today	491	(14)
Hydrothermal	491	(4)
Advanced systems	495	(10)
Competing in Today's Energy Markets	505	(3)
Research and Development Advances Needed	508	(2)
Potential for the Long Term	510	(9)
References	510	(7)
Web Sites of Interest	517	(1)
Problems	517	(2)
Hydropower	519	(24)
Overview of Hydropower	520	(2)
Hydropower Resource Assessment	522	(3)
Basic Energy Conversion Principles	525	(2)
Conversion Equipment and Civil Engineering Operations	527	(4)
Civil engineering aspects of dam construction and waterway management	527	(2)
Turbines as energy convertors	529	(2)
Sustainability Attributes	531	(4)
Status of Hydropower Technology Today	535	(8)
Economic issues	535	(2)
Potential for growth	537	(1)
Advanced technology needs	538	(2)
References	540	(2)
Web Sites of Interest	542	(1)
Problems	542	(1)
Solar Energy	543	(46)
General Characteristics of Solar Energy	544	(1)
Resource Assessment	544	(10)
Passive and Active Solar Thermal Energy for Buildings	554	(7)
Motivation and general issues	554	(1)
Passive systems	555	(1)
Active systems	556	(3)
Economic and policy issues	559	(2)
Solar Thermal Electric Systems---Concentrating Solar Power	561	(11)
Fundamentals and options	561	(1)
Power tower---central receiver systems	562	(3)
Parabolic troughs	565	(3)
Dish engine systems	568	(1)
Current status and future potential of CSP	569	(3)
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Systems	572	(10)
Solid state physical chemistry fundamentals	573	(2)
Performance limits and design options	575	(3)
Silica-based systems (crystalline and amorphous)	578	(1)
Copper indium diselenide (CIS)	579	(1)
Cadmium telluride (CdTe)	579	(1)
Current status and future potential of PV	580	(2)
Sustainability Attributes	582	(2)
Summary and Prognosis	584	(5)
References	585	(1)
Web Sites of Interest	586	(1)
Problems	587	(2)
Ocean Waves, Tide, and Thermal Energy Conversion	589	(24)
Introduction	590	(1)
Energy from the Tides	590	(7)
Energy from the Waves: Overview	597	(2)
Energy from Temperature Differences	599	(5)
Overview	599	(1)
Performance limits	600	(2)
OTEC technology	602	(2)
Economic Prospects	604	(1)
Environmental and Sustainability Considerations	605	(1)
The Ocean as an Externalities Sink	606	(1)
Current Status and Future Prospects	606	(7)
References	607	(2)
Web Sites of Interest	609	(1)
Problems	609	(2)
Appendix	611	(2)
Wind Energy	613	(34)
Introduction and Historical Notes	614	(3)
Wind Resources	617	(10)
Wind quality	619	(3)
Variation of wind speed with elevation	622	(2)
Air density	624	(1)
Maximum wind turbine efficiency: The Betz ratio	624	(3)
Wind Machinery and Generating Systems	627	(4)
Overview	627	(1)
Rotor blade assembly	627	(3)
Tower	630	(1)
Nacelle components	630	(1)
Balance-of-station subsystems	630	(1)
System design challenges	631	(1)
Wind Turbine Rating	631	(1)
Wind Power Economics	632	(3)
Measures of Sustainability	635	(2)
Net energy analysis	635	(1)
Cost of externalities	635	(1)
Environmental impact of wind power	636	(1)
Current Status/Future Prospects	637	(10)
References	640	(2)
Web Sites of Interest	642	(1)
Problems	642	(3)
Appendix	645	(2)
Storage, Transportation, and Distribution of Energy	647	(46)
Overview of Energy Supply Infrastructure Needs	648	(3)
Connected Efficiencies and Energy Chains	651	(2)
Modes of Energy Storage	653	(17)
General characteristics	653	(5)
Energy storage technologies	658	(12)
Energy Transmission	670	(8)
General characteristics of energy transmission systems	670	(1)
Oil transport	671	(3)
Natural gas transport	674	(1)
Coal transport	675	(1)
Electric power transmission	676	(2)
Energy Distribution Systems	678	(5)
General characteristics of central versus distributed systems	678	(3)
Combined heat and power opportunities	681	(2)
Applications to renewable energy systems and hybrids	683	(1)
Sustainability Attributes	683	(1)
Improved resource utilization	683	(1)
Environmental, safety, and health concerns	683	(1)
Economic and operational attributes	684	(1)
Opportunities for Advancement of Sustainable Energy Infrastructures	684	(9)
References	686	(2)
Web Sites of Interest	688	(1)
Problems	688	(5)
Electric Power Sector	693	(34)
Introduction and Historical Perspectives	694	(4)
Power Generation	698	(12)
Electric energy	698	(2)
Centralized energy generation	700	(1)
Electric power generation	700	(1)
Environmental effects of electricity production	701	(3)
Power plant siting requirements	704	(1)
Electricity economics	705	(2)
Ways of organizing the electric economy	707	(1)
Demand-side management (DSM) and distributed generation	708	(1)
Electricity transmission and distribution and economic deregulation	708	(2)
An Example of Electric Industry Planning Using Multiattribute Assessment Tools	710	(5)
Energy Market Impacts on Electricity Generation Options	715	(4)
Sustainability Issues	719	(8)
References	724	(1)
Web Sites of Interest	725	(1)
Problems	726	(1)
Transportation Services	727	(34)
Introduction and Historical Perspectives	728	(5)
Elements of the Transportation System	733	(2)
Transportation Fuels and the Fuel Cycle	735	(4)
Personal Vehicles	739	(5)
Historical perspectives	739	(2)
Looking forward	741	(3)
A Lifecycle Comparison of Road Transport Alternatives for 2020	744	(8)
Freight Vehicles	752	(1)
Interurban and Intercontinental Transport	753	(1)
Motorization Trends	753	(2)
Sustainability Issues	755	(6)
References	757	(1)
Web Sites of Interest	758	(1)
Problems	758	(3)
Industrial Energy Usage	761	(16)
Introduction and Historical Perspectives	762	(1)
Lifecycle Analysis and Design for Sustainability	763	(3)
Metals Industries	766	(1)
Cement and Lime Industries	767	(2)
Chemical Industries	769	(1)
Forest Products and Agriculture	770	(2)
Waste Management Industries	772	(1)
Sustainability Issues	773	(4)
References	774	(1)
Web Sites of Interest	775	(1)
Problems	775	(2)
Commercial and Residential Buildings	777	(20)
Introduction and Historical Perspectives	778	(2)
Lifecycle Analysis	780	(4)
Residential Building Design	784	(5)
Commercial Buildings	789	(2)
Indoor Air Quality	791	(1)
Sustainability Issues	792	(5)
References	794	(1)
Web Sites of Interest	795	(1)
Problems	795	(2)
Synergistic Complex Systems	797	(26)
Introduction and Historical Notes	798	(2)
The Complex Systems View	800	(6)
Expert panels	801	(1)
Decision analysis techniques	802	(3)
Negotiation	805	(1)
How are decisions really made?	805	(1)
Some Case Studies	806	(10)
Beyond the Limits (Meadows et al., 1992)	807	(4)
Which World? (Hammond, 1998)	811	(1)
MIT Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Change: Integrated Global Climate Model	812	(4)
Transitional Pathways	816	(1)
The Challenge to Society	817	(6)
References	819	(1)
Web Sites of Interest	820	(1)
Problems	821	(2)
Choosing Among Options	823	(4)
Conversion Factors	827	(4)
List of Acronyms	831	(6)
Index	837