Teaching Children to Read : Putting the Pieces Together

by Reutzel, D. Ray; Cooter, Robert B.

• ISBN13: 9780130998354
• ISBN10: 0130998354
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1999-08-01
• Publisher: PRENTICE HALL

Summary

For courses in Reading Methods in Elementary School. This Elementary Reading Methods text is the only one on the market that offers a transitional perspective to teach reading in a balanced way. It provides theoretical guidelines and methodology to combine both the use of basals and skills based instruction with a more balanced approach to teaching reading. The authors introduce seven principles that support literacy development and examine them closely throughout the text. These principles undergird the philosophical methodology pre-service teachers use to develop their own model of balanced literacy instruction.

Author Biography

D. Ray Reutzel is the Provost and academic vice president at Southern Utah University.

Table of Contents

PART I: UNDERSTANDING AND SUPPORTING LITERACY DEVELOPMENT: RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
Reading Instruction: Making the Transition to a Balanced Perspective	2	(12)
Transitions: A Model for Changing Teachers' Instructional Practices	4	(3)
Traditional Approaches	4	(1)
Whole Language	4	(1)
Balanced Literacy Programs	4	(3)
Making Transitions Towards Balanced Literacy Instruction	7	(4)
Transitions Means Philosophical Movement	7	(1)
Transitions Takes Time	8	(1)
Transitions Involves Curriculum Integration	8	(1)
Transitions Involves Risk Taking	8	(1)
The Transitions Model: A Modest Proposal for Change	9	(2)
Challenges Facing Preservice Teachers in Making Transitions	11	(1)
Disharmony with Past Belief Systems	11	(1)
Conflicting Views Among Educators	11	(1)
Overcoming Tradition in the Schools	11	(1)
Challenges Facing In-Service Teachers	12	(1)
Time Commitment	12	(1)
Comfort Zones	12	(1)
Administrative Risk Taking	13	(1)
Concept Applications	13	(1)
In the Classroom	13	(1)
Recommended Readings	13	(1)
Understanding Reading: The Theoretical Roots of Instruction	14	(26)
Reading in Today's Society: A Sketch of the Problem	16	(1)
The Need for Understanding How Children Learn to Read	17	(1)
Reading Theories and Their Relationship to Reading Instruction	18	(18)
Behaviorism and a Parts-to-Whole Bottom-Up Reading Process	19	(2)
The Relationship of Behaviorism to Subskills or Phonics-First Reading Instruction	21	(3)
Cognitivism and the Interactive Reading Process	24	(3)
The Relationship of Cognitivism to Skills Reading Instruction	27	(3)
Constructivism and the Transactional Reading Model	30	(2)
The Relationship of Constructivism to Balanced Literacy Instruction	32	(2)
Defining and Refining Instructional Beliefs	34	(2)
Transitional Instructional Change Model	36	(1)
Summary	36	(1)
Concept Applications	37	(1)
In the Classroom	37	(1)
In the Field	37	(1)
Recommended Readings	38	(2)
Emergent Literacy: Understanding the Literacy Development of Young Children	40	(46)
On Becoming Literate	42	(1)
Emergent Literacy	42	(1)
Cognitive and Affective Aspects of Language Development	43	(8)
Contributions of Piaget	43	(4)
Contributions of Vygotsky	47	(1)
Contributions of Affect	48	(3)
Understanding Language	51	(5)
The Semantic Cueing System in Language	51	(2)
The Syntactic Cueing System in Language	53	(2)
The Visual-Graphophonic Cueing System in Language	55	(1)
Pragmatics	55	(1)
Oral Language Acquisition	56	(2)
Behaviorist Theory	56	(1)
Innatist Theory	57	(1)
Interactionist Theory	57	(1)
Stages of Oral Language Development	58	(3)
Parents' Baby Talk: One Way of Getting Attention	58	(1)
The First 12 Months: A Time for Hope	58	(1)
From 1 to 2: By Leaps and Bounds	59	(1)
From 2 to 3: What Does It Mean When I Say No?!	60	(1)
From 3 to 4: The Why Years	60	(1)
From 4 to 6: Years of Growth and Refinement	61	(1)
Development of Reading Behaviors	61	(5)
The Mystery of Reading: The Magical Stage	64	(1)
``Look, Mom, I'm Reading'': The Self-Concepting Reading Stage	64	(1)
Spanning the Gap: The Bridging Stage	65	(1)
Blast Off!: The Takeoff Stage	65	(1)
I Can Do It by Myself!: The Independent Stage	66	(1)
Reaching the Summit: The Skilled Reader	66	(1)
Development of Storybook Reading Behaviors	66	(2)
Picture-Governed	66	(2)
Print-Governed	68	(1)
Development of Writing Behaviors	68	(10)
Scribbling and Drawing Stage	69	(4)
Prephonemic Stage	73	(1)
Early Phonemic Stage	73	(2)
Letter-Naming Stage	75	(1)
Transitional Stage	76	(2)
Developing a Sense of Story	78	(2)
Story Grammar Elements	79	(1)
Understanding Print Concepts and the Language of Instruction	80	(2)
Environmental Print Studies	80	(1)
Student Perceptions of Reading	81	(1)
Understanding Concepts About Print	82	(1)
Summary	82	(1)
Concept Applications	83	(1)
In the Classroom	83	(1)
In the Field	83	(1)
Recommended Readings	84	(2)
Basal Readers: Determining How to Use Basals Effectively	86	(42)
Understanding the Basal Reader	88	(4)
Anatomy of the Basal Reading Approach	92	(8)
The Teacher's Edition	93	(1)
The Student's Basal Text	94	(2)
The Workbook	96	(2)
Assessment	98	(1)
Record Keeping	98	(2)
Production and Organization of Basal Readers	100	(5)
Strengths and Weaknesses of Basal Readers	100	(2)
Organization of the Basal Reader	102	(3)
Instructional Beliefs and Basal Readers	105	(1)
Decoding Basals	105	(1)
Literature-Based Basals	105	(1)
Adopting and Evaluating Basal Readers From a Transitional Perspective	106	(6)
The Process of Basal Reader Adoption	107	(1)
Evaluating Basal Readers From a Balanced Reading Perspective	108	(4)
Taking Control of the Basal Teacher's Manual	112	(8)
Balanced Reading Program	112	(2)
Reconciled Reading Lesson	114	(1)
Using the Language Experience Approach With Basal Reader Lessons	115	(1)
Reciprocal Questioning	116	(2)
Directed Reading Thinking Activity	118	(2)
Teaching Effective Skill Lessons: From Whole to Parts to Whole	120	(3)
Selection and Analysis of a ``Whole'' Text Example: Analyzing a Basal Selection for Skills to Include in a Mini-lesson	120	(3)
Helping Students With Special Needs Succeed With Basal Reader Instruction	123	(1)
Helping Students With Diverse Cultural or Language Needs Succeed With Basal Readers	124	(1)
Summary	125	(1)
Concept Applications	125	(1)
In the Classroom	125	(1)
In the Field	126	(1)
Recommended Readings	126	(2)
From Basals to Books: Making the Transition	128	(46)
Transitions: Implementing Balance in Reading Instruction	130	(1)
Transitions in Instructional Beliefs	131	(5)
``I Don't Know Enough Yet to Know Where I Stand'' Stance	131	(1)
Combative Stance	132	(1)
Tentative Stance	132	(1)
Responsive Stance	133	(1)
Explorative Stance	133	(1)
An Off-the-Record Stance	133	(1)
A Cautiously Out-in-the-Open Stance	133	(1)
An Advocate's Stance	134	(2)
Transitions in Using Instructional Materials	136	(5)
Basals as Springboards: Mitigating Weaknesses	136	(1)
Treating the Basal as an Anthology of Literature---Not a Textbook!	137	(1)
Working out of Worksheet Dependency: Toward Reader Response	138	(1)
Teaching With Text	139	(1)
Oral Reading With Basals and Books: Breaking Away From Round-Robin Reading	139	(1)
Components of the Oral Recitation Lesson	139	(1)
Asking Comprehension Questions: The Reading Inquisition	140	(1)
Transitions in Curriculum Design: Standards Based Instruction	141	(10)
Developing a Nonnegotiable Skills List	143	(1)
Levels of Integration: Breaking Down Curriculum Barriers	144	(1)
Language to Literacy Units With Basals and Books	145	(3)
Transitions in Grouping: From Whole-Class (No Grouping) to Flexible Grouping	148	(3)
Transitions in Community Involvement: Seeking Support for Change	151	(4)
Parent Involvement: Information and Volunteerism	151	(2)
Seeking Administrative Support	153	(1)
Colleague Collaboration: Establishing Support Groups	154	(1)
Transitions in the Classroom Environment	155	(2)
Institutional Versus Homelike Classroom Environments	155	(1)
Classroom Design Considerations	156	(1)
Transitions in Assessment	157	(2)
Freedom From the Bondage of Teaching to Texts	157	(1)
Portfolios: Movies, Not Snapshots	158	(1)
Transitions in Diversity: Monoculture to Multiculture	159	(2)
From Caterpillar to Butterfly: The Metamorphosis of Three Transitional Reading Teachers	161	(11)
Summary	172	(1)
Concept Applications	173	(1)
In the Classroom	173	(1)
In the Field	173	(1)
Recommended Readings	173	(1)
Reading Comprehension: Focusing on Instruction	174	(48)
Comprehension: Instruction and Assessment	176	(1)
Issues in Teaching Reading Comprehension	176	(2)
Teaching Versus Testing	176	(1)
Basals Don't Teach Reading Comprehension	177	(1)
Don't Be Afraid to Teach	177	(1)
Theories About Comprehending Text	178	(6)
Schema Theory	178	(1)
Understanding the Process of Comprehending Text	179	(2)
Explaining Comprehension Difficulties	181	(2)
Instructional Implications of Schema Theory	183	(1)
Generative Learning Theory	184	(1)
A Model for Effective Comprehension Instruction	184	(1)
Gradual Release of Responsibility Instruction Model	184	(1)
Text-Based Comprehension Instruction: Focus on Narrative Structure	185	(10)
Narrative Structure: Story Grammars	185	(2)
Story Mapping	187	(2)
Story Frames	189	(4)
Schema Stories	193	(1)
Discussion Webs	194	(1)
Text-Based Comprehension Instruction: Focus on Expository Structure	195	(6)
Expository Structures	195	(1)
Pattern Guides	195	(2)
Concept-Text-Application	197	(4)
Teaching Reading Comprehension: Focus on Context	201	(3)
The Cloze Procedure	201	(1)
Cohesive Ties	202	(2)
Typographic Features	204	(1)
Activating Background Knowledge	204	(4)
Prereading Plan	204	(1)
K-W-L	205	(1)
Generating Reciprocal Inferences Procedure (GRIP)	206	(2)
Monitoring Comprehension and Fix-Up Strategies	208	(2)
Assessing Comprehension of Text: Strategies for Effective Questioning	210	(7)
Retellings as Comprehension Assessment	210	(1)
Questioning Taxonomies	210	(2)
Question-Answer Relationships	212	(2)
Asking Prereading Versus Postreading Questions	214	(1)
Reciprocal Questioning	214	(1)
Wait Time	214	(1)
Questions Can Help Students Reconstruct a Model of the Text for Remembering	215	(2)
Increasing Student Involvement	217	(1)
Helping Students With Special Comprehension Needs	217	(1)
Reciprocal Teaching	217	(1)
Helping Students With Special Cultural and Language Needs	218	(2)
Contextual Diagrams	218	(1)
Active Listening to First-and Second-Language Literature	218	(2)
Summary	220	(1)
Concept Applications	220	(1)
In the Classroom	220	(1)
In the Field	220	(1)
Recommended Readings	221	(1)
Acquiring Vocabulary: Words for Reading and Writing	222	(38)
Hypotheses About Vocabulary Learning	224	(1)
The Instrumental Hypothesis	224	(1)
The Aptitude Hypothesis	224	(1)
The Knowledge Hypothesis	224	(1)
The Access Hypothesis	224	(1)
Which Hypothesis Is Correct?	225	(1)
Research on Vocabulary Learning	225	(1)
Principles for Effective Vocabulary Instruction	226	(2)
Which Words Should We Teach?	227	(1)
Developing Sight Words	228	(6)
Word Banks	229	(1)
Key Vocabulary	230	(1)
Basal Words	230	(1)
Basal Words for Bilingual Classrooms (Spanish)	230	(1)
Discovery Words	230	(2)
Function (``Four-Letter'') Words	232	(2)
Strategies for Building Students' Background Knowledge	234	(4)
Gipe's Cluing Technique	234	(1)
RIVET	235	(1)
Predict-O-Gram	236	(1)
Frayer Model	236	(1)
Opin	237	(1)
Word Cards	237	(1)
Structured Overview	238	(1)
Strategies for Extending Students' Vocabulary Knowledge	238	(11)
Semantic Mapping	238	(1)
Making Words	239	(1)
Semantic Feature Analysis	239	(3)
The Essential Vocabulary Words: Grades 4--6	242	(5)
Exclusion Brainstorming	247	(1)
Concept Ladder	248	(1)
Free-Form Outline	248	(1)
Capsule Vocabulary	248	(1)
Strategies for Helping Students Acquire New Vocabulary Independently	249	(1)
Encouraging Wide Reading	249	(8)
Shared Reading and Vocabulary Learning	251	(1)
Computer-Assisted Vocabulary Learning	251	(1)
Vocabulary Overview	252	(1)
Word Maps	252	(1)
Studying Word Functions and Changes	253	(4)
Assisting Students in Multicultural Settings With Vocabulary Development	257	(1)
Summary	258	(1)
Concept Applications	258	(1)
In the Classroom	258	(1)
In the Field	258	(1)
Recommended Readings	259	(1)
Decoding Skills: Identifying Words in Print	260	(44)
Recent Research Concerning Beginning Reading Instruction	262	(2)
The Relationship of Decoding Instruction With Reading and Writing Processes	264	(2)
Reading Uses ``Segmenting'' and ``Blending''	264	(1)
Writing Uses ``Segmenting'' and ``Blending''	265	(1)
Implications for Early and Emergent Reading Instruction	265	(1)
A Developmental and Instructional Sequence for Phonemic Awareness, Alphabetic Principle, and Phonics	266	(1)
Phonemic Awareness	267	(5)
An Anticipation Guide on Phonemic Awareness	267	(1)
Research on Phonemic Awareness	268	(2)
Five Basic Phonemic Awareness Tasks	270	(1)
Some Tips for Planning Instruction in Phonemic Awareness	271	(1)
Alphabetic Principle	272	(4)
An ``Alphabet Books'' Approach	273	(3)
Phonics Instruction in Balanced Literacy Classrooms	276	(7)
A Phonics Prereading Quiz	276	(1)
Phonics: What We Know From Research and Practice	276	(2)
Seven Phonics Generalizations	278	(2)
Other Important Phonics Terms and Skills	280	(1)
Onset and Rime	280	(1)
Structural Analysis and Morphemic Clues	281	(2)
Putting It All Together: A Sequence of Word-Identification Skills	283	(5)
Teaching Skills Effectively Using Mini-lessons: Whole to Parts to Whole Instruction	284	(4)
Focusing Attention on Print: Bridging From Memory to Text	288	(3)
Recognition	289	(1)
Identification and Matching	289	(1)
Cloze Techniques	289	(1)
Substitution	290	(1)
Error Detection	290	(1)
Spoonerisms	290	(1)
Vowel Substitution	290	(1)
Word Rubberbanding	291	(1)
Teaching Skills Through Raps, Songs, and Chants	291	(4)
Using the Writing Process to Further Enhance Word-Identification Skills	295	(2)
``Temporary'' Spellings	295	(1)
Editing Sessions	296	(1)
Helping Students With Special Needs Develop Word-Identification Strategies	297	(5)
Writing as a Tool to Develop Context Clue Awareness	298	(1)
Vowel and Consonant Sound Practice	298	(1)
Helping SOL (Speakers of Other Languages) Students Develop Phonemic Awareness	299	(3)
Summary	302	(1)
Concept Applications	302	(1)
In the Classroom	302	(1)
In the Field	303	(1)
Classroom Resources for Teachers	303	(1)
Recommended Readings	303	(1)
Literacy Environments: Designing Classrooms That Promote Literacy	304	(42)
Designing the Classroom Environment	306	(1)
Balanced Literacy Classrooms: Understanding the Dynamics of Classroom Environment	306	(4)
Providing Literacy Props Affects Children's Literacy-Learning Opportunities	306	(1)
The Arrangement of Literacy Props Affects the Quality and Quantity of Literacy Learning in Classrooms	307	(1)
Literacy Props Help Focus Human Interaction Toward Acquiring Literacy Behaviors	308	(1)
Literacy Props Can Be Used to Create Authentic Literacy-Learning Settings	309	(1)
Practical Considerations for Organizing the Classroom Environment	310	(11)
Whole-Class Learning and Sharing Area	312	(1)
Writing and Publishing Area	312	(1)
Silent Reading Area	313	(2)
Supported Reading Area	315	(1)
Reading Conference Area	316	(1)
Thematic Studies or Inquiry-Based Study Area	316	(1)
Display Areas	317	(3)
Storage Areas	320	(1)
Instructional Resources	321	(7)
Trade Books	322	(1)
Basal Readers	322	(1)
Workbooks, Worksheets, and Blackline Masters	323	(1)
Leveled Books	323	(1)
Decodable Books	324	(1)
Computers and Other Information Technologies (ITs) in the Classroom	324	(2)
Using Volunteers	326	(2)
Instructional Organization: The Question of Grouping	328	(12)
Ability Grouping	328	(1)
Whole-Class Instruction	329	(1)
Literature-Response Groups or Literature Circles	330	(1)
Basal Reader Visiting Response Groups	331	(1)
Cooperative Learning Groups	332	(1)
Guided Reading Groups: Dynamic Homogeneous Grouping	333	(3)
Needs Groups	336	(2)
Flexible Groups	338	(1)
Flexible Basal Reader Groups: Large-Group Lesson/Small-Group Follow-Up	339	(1)
Adapting the Environment to Assist Children With Special Needs	340	(1)
Adapting the Environment to Assist Linguistically and Culturally Diverse Students	341	(1)
Summary	341	(2)
Concept Applications	343	(1)
In the Classroom	343	(1)
In the Field	343	(1)
Recommended Readings	344	(2)
Assessment: Determining Students' Progress in Literacy	346	(54)
Principles of Classroom Assessment	348	(2)
Traditional Reading Assessment	350	(5)
Informal Reading Inventories	351	(1)
Group Reading Tests	352	(1)
Individual Diagnostic Reading Tests	352	(1)
Other Reading-Related Tests	353	(1)
Problems With Many Traditional Reading Tests	354	(1)
Balanced Literacy Assessment	355	(4)
Portfolio Assessment Schemes: An Approach for Collecting Information	356	(1)
Kid Watching: Classroom Observations of Children and Reading	357	(1)
Literacy Developmental Milestones	358	(1)
Methods for Assessing Reading Development	359	(17)
The Burke Reading Interview	359	(1)
Interest Inventory	360	(1)
Concepts About Print	360	(1)
Alphabet Knowledge (Early Readers)	361	(1)
Additional Observation Checklists and Scales	361	(1)
Fluency Evaluation	362	(2)
Reading Logs	364	(1)
Running Records	365	(2)
Retellings	367	(2)
Story Maps	369	(1)
Teacher-Made Cloze Tests	370	(1)
Questioning	371	(1)
Family Surveys of Reading Habits	371	(1)
Evaluating Your Program: Assessing the ``Big Picture''	371	(2)
Evaluating the Classroom Environment	373	(1)
Self-Rating Scales	373	(1)
Additional Suggestions for Developing Reading Portfolios	373	(3)
Getting Organized: Profiling Your Class	376	(6)
Two Documents Needed for Profiling	376	(6)
Reporting Progress to Families: What About Grades?	382	(6)
Reading Logs	384	(1)
Running Records	384	(1)
Retellings	385	(1)
Literature-Response Projects	385	(2)
Cloze Tests	387	(1)
Questioning	387	(1)
Evaluation Forms	387	(1)
Fluency Measures	387	(1)
Potential Pitfalls in Using Portfolios	388	(1)
Overcommitment (by Teachers) to Daily Entries	388	(1)
Spending Too Much Time Managing Portfolios	389	(1)
Too Many Contributions by Students	389	(1)
Other Issues in Reading Assessment	389	(5)
The Notion of Skill Mastery	389	(1)
The Need for a Variety of Contexts and Literary Forms	390	(1)
Power Tests Versus Timed Tests	390	(1)
Norm-Referenced Tests Versus State-Developed Tests	391	(1)
``Authentic Grading''	391	(1)
Assessing Affective and Conative Factors in Reading	392	(2)
Summary	394	(1)
Concept Applications	395	(1)
In the Classroom	395	(1)
In the Field	395	(1)
Recommended Readings and Assessment Instruments	396	(4)
PART II: READING AND WRITING DEVELOPMENT: PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
The Early Years: Reading and Writing in Grades K---2	400	(70)
A Balanced Literacy Program: Reading TO, WITH, and BY Young Children	402	(1)
Reading TO Children	402	(3)
Reading Aloud	402	(1)
Small-Group and One-to-One Reading	403	(2)
Reading WITH Children	405	(13)
Shared Book Experience	405	(2)
Shared Musical Reading Experience	407	(1)
Supported Reading: Read-Along Cassettes and Take-Home Books	408	(1)
Guided Reading	409	(3)
Language Experience	412	(6)
Reading BY Children	418	(3)
Sustained Silent Reading, or Drop Everything and Read	418	(2)
Reader's Theater and Dramatizations	420	(1)
The School Library	421	(1)
Balanced Literacy Programs: Writing TO and FOR, WITH, and BY Young Children	421	(1)
Writing TO and FOR Children	422	(2)
Dialogue Journals	422	(1)
Message Board	422	(1)
Language Experience Approach	422	(2)
Writing WITH Children	424	(5)
Interactive Writing	424	(3)
Traveling Tales	427	(2)
Writing BY Children	429	(5)
Classroom Post Office for Letter Writting	429	(1)
Wordless Picture Books	429	(4)
Pocketbooks	433	(1)
Reading Response Logs and Journals	433	(1)
Establishing Daily Reading and Writing Routines for Young Children	434	(6)
Tune-In	436	(1)
Old Favorites	436	(1)
Learning About Language	437	(1)
New Story	438	(1)
Independent Output Activities	439	(1)
Sharing Time	439	(1)
Instructional Strategies for Teaching Young Children to Read and Write	440	(1)
Learning About Words	441	(7)
Environmental Print	441	(1)
Learning the Alphabetic Principle	441	(2)
Acquiring Phonemic Awareness	443	(1)
Developmental Phonics for Early or Emergent Readers	444	(4)
Helping Young Children Develop a Sense of Story	448	(1)
Picture Schema Stories	448	(1)
Developing Comprehension With Young Children	448	(8)
Picture Story Frames	448	(1)
Literature Webbing With Predictable Books	449	(2)
Directed Listening Thinking Activity	451	(1)
Story Retellings	452	(4)
Young Children Responding to Literature	456	(5)
Sketch to Stretch	458	(1)
Posters	459	(2)
Character Mobiles	461	(1)
Developing Fluency: Young Children Rereading	461	(2)
Radio Reading	461	(1)
Repeated Readings	462	(1)
Themed, Project, or Inquiry-Based Instruction With Young Children	463	(2)
Assisting Young Readers With Special Needs	465	(1)
Reading Recovery	465	(1)
Helping Students With Special Cultural and Language Needs Succeed in the Early Years	466	(1)
Summary	467	(1)
Concept Applications	467	(1)
In the Classroom	467	(1)
In the Field	467	(1)
Recommended Readings	468	(2)
The Elementary Years: Reading and Writing in Grades 3--5	470	(56)
Balanced Literacy Instruction in Grades 3 Through 5	472	(2)
Keeping Our ``Balance''	472	(1)
Literacy ``To, With, and By''	472	(1)
The Role of Basal Readers	472	(1)
The Reading-Writing connection	473	(1)
Literature-Based Reading Instruction	474	(30)
What Kinds of Books Do Students Enjoy Reading?	475	(1)
Core Book Units	475	(3)
Individualized Reading	478	(1)
Using a Themed Literature Units Approach	478	(3)
Teaching Themed Literature Units: The Nuts and Bolts	481	(2)
Themed Literature Unit Time Line: An Example	483	(12)
Evaluating Themed Literature Units	495	(1)
The Reading Workshop: Organizing for Instruction	496	(8)
Developing Reading Fluency as Part of Literature-Based Reading Instruction	504	(3)
Strategies for Improving Fluency	505	(2)
The Writing Process: Making Authors of Readers	507	(11)
Understanding the Writing Process	507	(1)
The Prewriting Stage	507	(3)
The Drafting Stage	510	(1)
Revising and Editing	511	(2)
Publishing	513	(1)
Using the Writing Workshop: Organizing for Instruction	513	(4)
Classroom Computers and Writing Development	517	(1)
Assisting Limited English Proficient (LEP) Students	518	(5)
Environmental Print	519	(1)
Sentence Strips	519	(1)
Active Listening	520	(1)
Personal Dictionaries	521	(1)
Helping LEP Students With Content Area Texts	521	(2)
Summary	523	(1)
Concept Applications	524	(1)
In the Classroom	524	(1)
In the Field	524	(1)
Recommended Readings	524	(2)
Middle School: Reading and Writing in Grades 6---8	526	(40)
Helping Students Succeed With Content Reading Materials	528	(1)
Why Content Reading Is So Challenging for Some Students: The Nature of Expository Texts	528	(7)
Specialized Vocabulary and Concepts	528	(3)
Increased Concept Load	531	(1)
Readability Considerations	531	(3)
Unique Writing Patterns	534	(1)
Preparing to Teach: Analyzing Readings and Creating Study Aids	535	(13)
Performing a Content Analysis	535	(1)
Constructing Learning Tools	536	(6)
Vocabulary Development Activities	542	(3)
Choosing High-Interest Reading Materials	545	(3)
Proven Study Strategies: Helping Students Help Themselves	548	(6)
Efficient (``Speed Reading'') Study Strategies	548	(3)
Comprehension Monitoring (Metacognition)	551	(1)
Writing to Deepen Learning: Having Students Create Their Own Expository Texts	552	(2)
Reading Across the Curriculum: Themed Studies	554	(5)
Guidelines for Conducting Themed Studies	554	(5)
Tactics for Middle Schoolers Having Learning Problems	559	(4)
Comprehension ``Strategy Families''	560	(1)
Fluency Strategies: Improving Reading Speed	561	(1)
Commercial Programs for Low-Performing Readers	562	(1)
Summary	563	(1)
Content Applications	563	(1)
In the Classroom	563	(1)
In the Field	563	(1)
Recommended Readings	564	(2)
Appendix A: Balanced Literacy Resources for Teachers	566	(14)
Appendix B: Selected Resources for Teachers	580	(6)
Appendix C: Literacy Learning: Milestones for Grades K-3	586	(5)
Appendix D: Blank Miscue Grid	591	(3)
References	594	(44)
Name Index	638	(6)
Subject Index	644