This book has been replaced by Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills, Second Edition, ISBN 978-1-4625-4243-7.
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This book has been replaced by Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills, Second Edition, ISBN 978-1-4625-4243-7.
James Jaccard is Professor of Psychology and Director of the Institute for Child Health and Development at Florida International University in Miami. Previously, he was Distinguished Professor of Psychology for 20 years at the State University of New York, Albany. Dr. Jaccard has authored or edited 11 books and over 200 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals. He has served on numerous boards and panels for the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies and the National Institutes of Health and is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association. His research focuses broadly on attitudes, cognitions, and emotions as they affect decision making, especially in applied settings. This includes research on adolescent decision making, health-related decisions, and a critical analysis of the effects of unconscious influences on adult decision making.
Jacob Jacoby is Merchants Council Professor of Consumer Behavior at New York University’s Stern School of Business. He has authored or edited six books and over 160 articles in peer-reviewed social science and law journals. Dr. Jacoby is a Fellow of the American Psychological Association and a Fellow and past president of the Association for Consumer Research. His research on the factors that affect consumer decision making and behavior has been honored by awards from the American Psychological Association, the American Marketing Association, the American Academy of Advertising, the Association for Consumer Research, and the Society for Consumer Psychology. He has conducted research or consulted for dozens of Fortune 500 companies and other organizations. He has also worked for federal agencies (including the U.S. Senate, Federal Trade Commission, and Food and Drug Administration) and testified in more than 100 cases heard in U.S. District Courts.
I. BASIC CONCEPTS
1. Introduction
Organization of the Book
Theories and Settings
2. The Nature of Understanding
The Nature of Reality
How Reality Is Experienced
Concepts: The Building Blocks of Understanding
The Nature of Concepts
Concepts, Constructs, and Variables
Conceptual Systems: The Bases for Deeper Understanding
Communication
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
3. Science as an Approach to Understanding
Socially Based Approaches to Understanding
Commonalities across All Shared Conceptual Approaches
Special Features of the Scientific Approach
The Essentials of Scientific Endeavor
The Process of Theory Construction
What Is a Theory?
Theories, Models, and Hypotheses
Types of Theories
The Role of Theory in Basic versus Applied Research
Characteristics of a Good Theory
Science and Objectivity
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
II. Core Processes
4. Creativity and the Generation of Ideas
Introduction
One Small Step for Science
Creativity
The Creative Person
Creative Ideas
The Creative Process
Deciding to Be Creative
Practical Implications for Theory Construction
Choosing What to Theorize About
Literature Reviews
Heuristics for Generating Ideas
Idea Generation and Grounded/Emergent Theorizing
Twenty-Six Heuristics
When the Focus Is on Basic Mental or Biological Processes
Scientists on Scientific Theorizing
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
5. Focusing Concepts
The Process of Instantiation
The Nature of Conceptual Definitions
Shared Meaning, Surplus Meaning, and Nomological Networks
Practical Strategies for Specifying Conceptual Definitions
Multidimensional Constructs
Creating Constructs
An Example of Specifying Conceptual Definitions
Operationism
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
6. Clarifying Relationships Using Thought Experiments
Thought Experiments for Relationships in Grounded and Emergent Theory
Describing Relationships with Different Types of Variables
Thought Experiments for Relationships between Categorical Variables
Categorical Variables with Two Levels
Categorical Variables with More Than Two Levels
Thought Experiments for Relationships between Quantitative Variables
Scatterplots
Characteristics of Linear Relationships
Nonlinear Relationships
When Nonlinear Relationships Are Linear
A Thought Experiment with Hypothetical Scatterplots
Thought Experiments for Relationships between Categorical and Quantitative Variables
Thought Experiments for a Categorical Cause and a Quantitative Effect: The Use of Hypothetical Means
Thought Experiments for a Quantitative Cause and a Categorical Effect: The Use of Hypothetical Probabilities
Thought Experiments for Moderated Relationships
Thought Experiments Using Hypothetical Factorial Designs
Hypothetical Factorial Designs with More Than Two Levels
Hypothetical Factorial Designs with Quantitative Variables
Hypothetical Scatterplots and Quantitative Variables
Summary for Moderated Relationships
Broader Uses of Hypothetical Factorial Designs in Thought Experiments
Relationships Characterized by Main Effects
Relationships Characterized by Simple Main Effects
Relationships Characterized by Interaction Contrasts
Choice of the Moderator Variable
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
APPENDIX 6A. Thought Experiments for a Quantitative Cause and Categorical Effect: A Hypothetical Contingency Table Method
APPENDIX 6B. Thought Experiments for Moderated Moderation
III. Frameworks for Theory Construction
7. Causal Models
Two Types of Relationships: Predictive and Causal
Predictive Relationships
Causal Relationships
Causality and Grounded/Emergent Theory
Types of Causal Relationships
Constructing Theories with Causal Relationships
Identifying Outcome Variables
Identifying Direct Causes
Indirect Causal Relationships
Turning Direct Relationships into Indirect Relationships
Partial Mediation versus Complete Mediation
An Alternative Strategy for Turning Direct Effects into Indirect Effects
The Essence of Mediation
Moderated Causal Relationships
Mediated Moderation
Moderated Mediation
Moderated Moderation
Summary of Moderated Relationships
Reciprocal or Bidirectional Causality
There Is No Such Thing as Simultaneous Reciprocal Causality
Feedback Loops: Adding Mediators to Reciprocal Causation
Moderated Reciprocal Causation
Spurious Relationships
Adding Additional Outcomes
Adding Effects of Effects
Specifying Causal Relationships between Existing Variables
Summary of Additional Steps That May Create Spuriousness
Unanalyzed Relationships
Expanding the Theory Further
Temporal Dynamics
Disturbance Terms
Latent Variables, Structural Theory, and Measurement Theory
Revisiting Your Literature Review
Some Final Steps
Perspectives on the Construction of Causal Theories
Path Diagrams as Theoretical Propositions
A Note on Research Design and Statistical Analysis
Elaborating the Logic Underlying Each Path
The Use of Causal Analysis in Grounded/Emergent Theorizing
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
8. Mathematical Models
Types of Variables: Categorical, Discrete, and Continuous
Axioms and Theorems
Functions
Linear Functions
The Slope and Intercept
Deterministic versus Stochastic Models
Model Parameters
Adjustable Parameters and Parameter Estimation
Rates and Change: Derivatives and Differentiation
Instantaneous Change
Second and Third Derivatives
Describing Accumulation: Integrals and Integration
Just-Identified, Overidentified, and Underidentified Models
Metrics
Types of Nonlinearity
Logarithmic Functions
Exponential Functions
Power Functions
Polynomial Functions
Trigonomic Functions
Choosing a Function
Functions for Categorical Variables
Advanced Topics: Manipulating and Combining Functions
Function Transformations
Combining Functions
Multiple Variable Functions
Phases in Building a Mathematical Model
An Example Using Performance, Ability, and Motivation
An Example Using Cognitive Algebra
An Example Using Attitude Change
An Example Using a Traditional Causal Model
Chaos Theory
Catastrophe Theory
Additional Examples of Mathematical Models in the Social Sciences
Emergent Theory Construction and Mathematical Models
Summary and Concluding Comments
APPENDIX 8A. SPSS Code for Exploring Distribution Properties
APPENDIX 8B. Additional Modeling Issues for the Performance, Motivation, and Ability Example
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
9. Simulation as a Theory Development Method
Defining Simulations
The Uses of Research Simulations
The Difference between Simulation and Laboratory Experiments
Basic Simulation Varieties
All-Machine versus Person–Machine Simulations
Descriptive versus Analytic Simulations
Real-Time versus Compressed-Time versus Expanded-Time Simulations
Deterministic versus Nondeterministic Simulations
Free versus Experimental Simulations
Macro- versus Microsimulations
Content-Oriented Simulation
The Analysis of Criterion Systems as a Basis for Theory Construction
Simulation of Information Accessing in Consumer Purchase Decisions
Virtual Environments and Avatars
Simulations and Virtual Experiments
Agent-Based Modeling
Resources for Conducting Simulations
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
10. Grounded and Emergent Theory
Grounded and Emergent Theory: An Overview
Positivism "versus" Constructivism
Framing the Problem
The Role of Past Literature
Collecting Qualitative Data
Archival Records
Direct Observation
Structured and Unstructured Interviews and Surveys
Focus Groups
Virtual Ethnographies
Directive Qualitative Methods
Mixed-Methods Research
Memo Writing
Theoretical Sampling
Analyzing and Coding Data
An Example from Anthropology
The Statistical Exploration of Relationships
Process Analysis in Emergent Theorizing
Moving to Theoretical Statements: Using Principles of Rhetoric
Deduction, Induction, and Abduction
Toulmin's Model of Argumentation
Weak Arguments
APPENDIX 10A. The Limits of Information Processing
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
11. Historically Influential Systems of Thought
Grand Theories
Materialism
Structuralism
Functionalism
Symbolic Interactionism
Evolutionary Perspectives
Postmodernism: A Critical Commentary on Grand Theories
Frameworks Using Metaphors
Neural Networks
Systems Theory
Frameworks Emphasizing Stability and Change
Psychological Frameworks
Reinforcement Theories
Humanism and Positive Psychology
Frameworks Inspired by Methodology
Multilevel Modeling
Person-Centered Theorizing
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
IV. Concluding Issues
12. Reading and Writing about Theories
Reading about Theories in Outlets Emphasizing Theory Tests and Confirmatory Approaches to Science
The Introduction Section
The Method Section
The Results Section
The Discussion Section
Reading about Theories in Outlets Emphasizing Grounded/Emergent Theory
Writing about Theories
How You Say It Can Be as Important as What You Say
Briefer Is Better, But Don't Be Too Brief
Prepare an Outline
Provide a Road Map
Provide a Succinct Review of the Current Knowledge
Discuss the Implications and Importance of Your Theory
Keep Your Target Audience in Mind
Using Figures
Cite Sources for Your Ideas, Text, and Related Items
Spelling, Grammar, Typos, and Punctuation
Grant Proposals, Technical Reports, and Presentations
Summary and Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
APPENDIX 12A. Inferring Theoretical Relationships from the Choice of Statistical Tests
13. Epilogue
Competing Theories
Post Hoc Theorizing
Influential Science
Careers and Creative Theorizing in Science
Scientific Paradigms
A Program of Self Study
Concluding Comments
Suggested Readings
Key Terms
Exercises
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