Crime Control in America : An Assessment of the Evidence

by Worrall, John

• ISBN13: 9780205418794
• ISBN10: 0205418791
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2008-01-01
• Publisher: Allyn & Bacon

Summary

Crime Control in America introduces readers to the many methods of crime control and reviews the research concerning the effectiveness of these methods.

Table of Contents

Foreword	xv
Todd R. Clear
Preface	xix
SECTION ONE Introduction
Identifying and Evaluating Crime Control	1	(26)
Crime Control and Prevention	2	(1)
The Crime Problem in America	2	(9)
Types of Crimes	3	(1)
The Ever-Expanding Criminal Law	4	(1)
Incidence of Crime	4	(1)
Costs of Crime and Criminals	5	(6)
Is Fear of Crime Worse Than Crime Itself?	11	(1)
Approaches, Not Just Policies	11	(3)
Laws	12	(1)
Official Policies, Written and Unwritten	13	(1)
Unofficial Approaches	13	(1)
Crime Control by Happenstance	13	(1)
On the Importance of Definitions	14	(2)
Defining the Crime Problem	14	(1)
Defining the Solution	15	(1)
Defining the Desired Outcome	15	(1)
Evaluating Success: An Impossible Task?	16	(3)
The Hard and Soft Sciences	16	(1)
The Elusive Criminal Justice Experiment	17	(1)
You Can Prove Anything with Statistics	17	(1)
Qualitative and Quantitative Research	18	(1)
Macro- and Micro-Level Crime Control	18	(1)
Can Crime Control Succeed without Research?	19	(1)
Displacement and Diffusion	19	(2)
Measuring Displacement and Diffusion	20	(1)
Buffer Zones and Catchment Areas	20	(1)
Summary	21	(1)
The Tentative Nature of Scientific Knowledge	21	(2)
The Measures Used	21	(1)
When New Data Become Available	21	(1)
Alternate Settings: The Generalization Problem	22	(1)
Other Concerns	22	(1)
How Resources Dictate Public Policy and Guide Research	23	(1)
Academic Crusaders and Bandwagon Science	24	(1)
How Crime Control Is Accomplished: A Preview	24	(1)
Guns and Drugs: The Real Attention Getters	24	(1)
Does It Work?	25	(1)
Effective Does Not Always Mean Best	25	(1)
Conclusion	25	(2)
Crime Control Perspectives	27	(19)
Operational Perspectives	28	(5)
Due Process and Crime Control	28	(2)
System and Nonsystem	30	(1)
The Funnel Model of Justice	31	(2)
The Criminal Justice Wedding Cake	33	(1)
Political Perspectives	33	(5)
Liberals and Conservatives	34	(2)
Consensus and Conflict	36	(2)
Other Perspectives	38	(3)
Faith and Fact	38	(1)
Crime Control and Revenue Generation	39	(1)
Politics and Ivory Towers	39	(2)
Goals of Crime Control	41	(4)
Deterrence	41	(1)
Retribution	42	(1)
Incapacitation	43	(1)
Rehabilitation	43	(1)
Summary	44	(1)
Conclusion	45	(1)
SECTION TWO Law Enforcement Approaches
Traditional Policing	46	(21)
The Theory of Traditional Policing	47	(1)
Does Hiring More Cops Reduce Crime?	47	(7)
Reasons Why Hiring More Cops Might Not Reduce Crime	47	(2)
Lessons from Kansas City	49	(2)
The Post-Kansas City Intellectual Debate	51	(1)
The Violent Crime Control Act of 1994	52	(1)
What Happens When the Police Go on Strike?	53	(1)
A Very Thin Blue Line: Is There Really a Police Presence?	53	(1)
What Are They Doing on the Job?	53	(1)
Does It Work?	54	(1)
Freeing Up Resources	54	(1)
One- versus Two-Officer Patrols	54	(1)
311	54	(1)
Patrol Downtime Studies	55	(1)
Does It Work?	55	(1)
Removing Supposed Procedural Restraints	55	(4)
Abolish Miranda	55	(1)
Chuck the Exclusionary Rule	56	(2)
Does It Work?	58	(1)
The Problem with Being Reactive and Random	59	(3)
Reactive Policing	59	(1)
Rapid Response	60	(1)
Random Patrol	61	(1)
Does It Work?	62	(1)
Bring in the Detectives	62	(1)
The RAND Study	62	(1)
Recent Developments	63	(1)
Does It Work?	63	(1)
Other Traditional Approaches to Policing	63	(3)
Residency Requirements	63	(1)
College Degrees	64	(1)
Does It Work?	65	(1)
Conclusion	66	(1)
Proactive, Directed, and Creative Policing	67	(18)
Proactive Arrests	68	(2)
Proactive Arrests for High-Risk Repeat Offenders	68	(1)
Proactive Arrests for Specific Offenses	69	(1)
Does It Work?	70	(1)
Interrogations and Enhanced Supervision	70	(1)
Does It Work?	70	(1)
Directed Patrol	71	(3)
Classic Studies	72	(1)
Lawrence Sherman and the Hot Spots	72	(2)
Does It Work?	74	(1)
The Broken Windows Law Enforcement Approach	74	(3)
Fear, Disorder, and Crime	75	(1)
Quality-of-Life Policing	75	(1)
Does It Work?	76	(1)
Police-Corrections Partnerships	77	(2)
What Does the Research Show?	79	(1)
Does It Work?	79	(1)
More Partnering: Multijurisdictional Drug Task Forces	79	(2)
Does It Work?	81	(1)
Compstat	81	(3)
Does It Work?	84	(1)
Conclusion	84	(1)
Community Involvement in Policing	85	(19)
Community Justice	86	(1)
Problem-Oriented Policing	86	(1)
Community Policing: Some History	87	(2)
Reasons for Community Policing	88	(1)
Community Policing: What Is It?	89	(1)
Community Policing: Is It Really Happening?	90	(2)
Structural Change	91	(1)
Attitudinal Change	91	(1)
Summary	92	(1)
The Definition Problem Rears Its Head	92	(1)
Macro- and Micro-Level Research	93	(1)
Summary	93	(1)
Research on Community Policing's Effectiveness	93	(10)
Moving the Police into the Community	93	(6)
Does It Work?	99	(1)
Bringing the Community to the Police	100	(1)
Does It Work?	101	(1)
Integrated Community Policing	101	(2)
Does It Work?	103	(1)
Conclusion	103	(1)
Prosecutors and Crime Prosecutors Control	104	(21)
Prosecutors	105	(2)
Who Are the Prosecutors?	105	(1)
Have Prosecutors Been Forgotten?	106	(1)
The Shift toward Strategic Prosecution	106	(1)
The Harder Side of Prosecution	107	(6)
No-Drop Prosecution Policies	107	(1)
Police-Prosecutor Partnerships	108	(1)
Federal-State Partnerships	109	(2)
Project Safe Neighborhoods	111	(2)
Does It Work?	113	(1)
The Softer Side of Prosecution	113	(6)
Victim Assistance	113	(1)
Community Prosecution	114	(3)
Deferred Prosecution	117	(1)
Deferred Sentencing	118	(1)
Does It Work?	119	(1)
A Plea Bargaining Pandemic?	119	(5)
Arguments for and against Plea Bargaining	120	(1)
Attempts to Limit Plea Bargaining	121	(1)
Ad Hoc Plea Bargaining	122	(2)
Does It Work?	124	(1)
Conclusion	124	(1)
SECTION THREE Courts, Corrections, and Legislative Approaches
Incapacitation and Legislative Approaches	125	(25)
Pretrial Incapacitation	126	(2)
Preventive Detention	126	(1)
Setting Bail at a High Level	127	(1)
Does It Work?	128	(1)
Posttrial Incapacitation	128	(5)
More Prisoners, Less Crime?	128	(2)
Selective Incapacitation	130	(2)
Involuntary Civil Commitment	132	(1)
Does It Work?	133	(1)
Fines, Fees, and Forfeiture	133	(4)
Traditional Fines	133	(2)
Day Fines	135	(1)
Fees	136	(1)
Forfeiture	136	(1)
Does It Work?	137	(1)
Legislative Bans	137	(8)
Where There's a Demand, There's a Supply	137	(1)
Historical Lessons	138	(1)
Bans and Their Enforcement	139	(1)
Gun Bans	139	(2)
Drug Bans	141	(4)
Does It Work?	145	(1)
Restrictions, Regulations, and Buy-Backs	145	(3)
Altering Gun Designs	145	(1)
Regulating Gun Transactions	146	(1)
Denying Gun Ownership to Dangerous People	146	(1)
Buybacks	147	(1)
The Right-to-Carry Controversy	147	(1)
Does It Work?	148	(1)
Conclusion	148	(2)
Tough Sentencing and Deterrence	150	(22)
Types of Sentences	151	(1)
Does Sentence Length Matter?	151	(4)
Thinking about Various Types of Offenders	154	(1)
Can Incarceration Cause Crime?	154	(1)
Sentence Length and Crime	154	(1)
Does It Work?	155	(1)
Determinate Sentencing	155	(1)
The Hydraulic Displacement of Discretion	155	(1)
Impact on Prison Populations	155	(1)
Impact on Crime	156	(1)
Does It Work?	156	(1)
Sentence Enhancements	156	(2)
Sentence Enhancements for Guns	156	(2)
Sentence Enhancements for Hate-Motivated Offenses	158	(1)
Does It Work?	158	(1)
Mandatory Sentencing	158	(7)
A Life of Their Own?	158	(2)
Mandatory Sentences for Drug Offenders	160	(1)
Mandatory Sentences for Drunk Driving	161	(1)
Mandatory Sentences for Persistent Offenders	161	(1)
Three-Strikes Legislation	161	(4)
Mandatory Death Sentences?	165	(1)
Does It Work?	165	(1)
Capital Punishment	165	(2)
Our Stubborn Adherence to Capital Punishment	166	(1)
Does the Death Penalty Deter Crime?	167	(1)
Does It Work?	167	(1)
Deterring Sex Offenders	167	(3)
Megan's Laws	167	(2)
Chemical Castration	169	(1)
Does It Work?	170	(1)
Deterring Gang Violence with Injunctions	170	(1)
Does It Work?	171	(1)
Conclusion	171	(1)
Probation, Parole, and Intermediate Sanctions	172	(21)
The Organization and Administration of Probation and Parole	174	(1)
Probation	174	(1)
Parole	174	(1)
Common Probation and Parole Conditions	175	(1)
Probation and Parole Issues	175	(9)
To Serve or to Supervise	176	(3)
Caseload Concerns	179	(1)
Offender Characteristics over Time	180	(1)
Are Parolees Equipped to Reenter Society?	180	(3)
Consequences to Society of Prisoner Reentry	183	(1)
Is All Hope Lost? Improving Probation and Parole	183	(1)
Does It Work?	184	(1)
Intermediate Sanctions	184	(8)
The Net Widening Problem	184	(1)
A Typology of Intermediate Sanctions	185	(1)
Community Restraints	185	(3)
Structure and Discipline	188	(1)
Hybrid Intermediate Sanctions	189	(1)
Does It Work?	190	(1)
Summary Thoughts	191	(1)
Conclusion	192	(1)
Rehabilitation, Treatment, and Job Training	193	(19)
A Movement toward the Left	194	(1)
Some Definitions	194	(1)
Criminals Are Not Created Equal	195	(1)
Risk	195	(1)
Needs	196	(1)
Responsivity	196	(1)
Rehabilitation	196	(6)
Targeting Cognitive Skills	196	(4)
Anger Management	200	(1)
Improving Victim Awareness	200	(1)
Life Skills Training	201	(1)
Does It Work?	202	(1)
Treatment	202	(4)
Treating Drug Addicts	202	(3)
Treating Sex Offenders	205	(1)
Does It Work?	206	(1)
Job Training	206	(4)
The Employment-Crime Connection	206	(1)
Job Training for Convicts	207	(2)
Job Training for the General Population	209	(1)
Housing Dispersal and Mobility Programs	209	(1)
Does It Work?	210	(1)
More Lessons from Meta-Analysis	210	(1)
Conclusion	211	(1)
Crime Control in the Courts and Beyond	212	(25)
Diversion	213	(2)
Examples of Programmatic Diversion	214	(1)
Diversion Evaluations	214	(1)
Does It Work?	215	(1)
Shaming	215	(5)
A Brief History of Shaming	216	(1)
Examples of Shaming Penalties	216	(1)
Criticisms of Shaming	217	(1)
Braithwaite's Reintegrative Shaming	218	(1)
Does Shaming Reduce Recidivism?	219	(1)
Does It Work?	219	(1)
Restorative Justice	220	(4)
Examples of Restorative Justice	222	(1)
What the Research Shows	222	(1)
Does It Work?	223	(1)
Problem-Solving Courts	224	(11)
Drug Courts	228	(1)
Domestic Violence Courts	229	(2)
Community Courts	231	(2)
Other Specialized Courts	233	(2)
Does It Work?	235	(1)
Conclusion	235	(2)
SECTION FOUR Approaches beyond the Criminal Justice System
Individual, Family, and Household Crime Control	237	(22)
Government May Still Be Involved	238	(1)
Individual Crime Control	238	(12)
Guns and Personal Defense	240	(6)
Risk-Avoidance Behaviors	246	(2)
Risk-Management Behaviors	248	(1)
Does It Work?	249	(1)
Household and Family Crime Control	250	(8)
The Aim of Crime Control in Households and Families	250	(1)
How Families Influence Delinquency and Youth Victimization	250	(2)
Varieties of Crime Control in Households and Families	252	(6)
Does It Work?	258	(1)
Conclusion	258	(1)
Crime Control in the Community and in Schools	259	(26)
Community Crime Control	260	(16)
What Is Community?	260	(1)
The Social Ecology of Crime	261	(5)
Financial Assistance to Communities	266	(3)
Other Methods of Community Crime Control	269	(7)
Does It Work?	276	(1)
School-Based Crime Control	276	(8)
Crime in Schools	276	(1)
The Role of Schools in Crime Control	277	(1)
The Role of the Government in School-Based Crime Control	277	(1)
Targeting the School Environment	277	(3)
Targeting Students	280	(4)
Does It Work?	284	(1)
Conclusion	284	(1)
Reducing Criminal Opportunities Through Environmental Manipulation	285	(18)
Some Perspective	286	(1)
A Quick Return to Theory	287	(3)
Rational Offenders	287	(1)
Crime Pattern Theory	287	(1)
Territorial Functioning and Defensible Space	288	(1)
The Return of the Broken Windows Theory	288	(2)
How Environmental Manipulation Occurs	290	(1)
Access Control	290	(1)
Surveillance	290	(1)
Activity Support	290	(1)
Motivation Reinforcement	291	(1)
The Effectiveness of Environmental Manipulations	291	(11)
Residential Areas	291	(3)
Businesses	294	(2)
Transportation	296	(2)
Other Places	298	(2)
Does It Work?	300	(2)
Conclusion	302	(1)
SECTION FIVE Juvenile Crime Control
Juvenile Crime Control	303	(25)
Enter the Justice System	304	(1)
The Importance of Communities, Families, and Schools	304	(1)
Juvenile Crime	304	(4)
Sources of Data	304	(1)
Trends in Juvenile Crime	305	(1)
The Contagious Nature of Juvenile Crime	306	(2)
Differences between the Adult and Juvenile Justice Systems	308	(3)
Procedural Issues	310	(1)
Detention Centers	310	(1)
Heavy Reliance on Probation	310	(1)
Recent Reforms in Juvenile Justice	311	(3)
Juvenile Waivers	311	(1)
Sentencing	311	(1)
More Accountability	312	(1)
Less Privacy	313	(1)
Procedural Protections	313	(1)
Summary	313	(1)
Making Sense of Juvenile Crime Control	314	(1)
A Return to the Control/Prevention Distinction	314	(1)
Juvenile Crime Prevention	314	(5)
Concrete Evidence?	315	(1)
Proven Prevention	315	(3)
Promising Prevention	318	(1)
Does It Work?	319	(1)
Juvenile Crime Control	319	(8)
Diversion	319	(3)
Traditional Adjudication	322	(2)
Targeting Curfew Violators	324	(1)
Juvenile Waivers	325	(1)
Habitual Juvenile Offender Laws	325	(1)
Juvenile Death Penalty	325	(1)
Does It Work?	325	(2)
Conclusion	327	(1)
SECTION SIX Conclusion
Putting It All Together and Explaining Crime Trends	328	(17)
A Quick Review	328	(3)
Effective Crime Control	329	(1)
Failures	330	(1)
Uncertainties	330	(1)
Three Important Themes	331	(2)
Beyond the Justice System	331	(1)
Early Intervention Is Key to Success	332	(1)
More Research is Needed	332	(1)
Explaining Crime Trends	333	(10)
Liberal Explanations	334	(4)
Conservative Explanations	338	(2)
Other Explanations	340	(2)
Summary	342	(1)
Conclusion	343	(2)
Appendix A An Ultra-Brief Introduction to Criminal Justice in the United States	345	(8)
Sources of Crime Statistics	345	(1)
The Actors	346	(2)
Executive Branch	347	(1)
Legislative Branch	347	(1)
Judicial Branch	347	(1)
The Process	348	(5)
Pretrial	348	(3)
Adjudication	351	(1)
Beyond Convinction	351	(1)
A Note Concerning Sanctions	352	(1)
Notes	353	(62)
Name Index	415	(4)
Subject Index	419