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9780471314318

Analytical Chemistry in a GMP Environment A Practical Guide

by ;
  • ISBN13:

    9780471314318

  • ISBN10:

    0471314315

  • Edition: 1st
  • Format: Hardcover
  • Copyright: 2000-05-01
  • Publisher: Wiley-Interscience
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Summary

How to hone your analytical skills and obtain high-quality data in the era of GMP requirements With increased regulatory pressures on the pharmaceutical industry, there is a growing need for capable analysts who can ensure appropriate scientific practices in laboratories and manufacturing sites worldwide. Based on Johnson & Johnson's acclaimed in-house training program, this practical guide provides guidance for laboratory analysts who must juggle the Food and Drug Administration's good manufacturing practices (GMP) rules with rapidly changing analytical technologies. Highly qualified industry experts walk readers step-by-step through the concepts, techniques, and tools necessary to perform analyses in an FDA-regulated environment, including clear instructions on all major analytical chemical methods-from spectroscopy to chromatography to dissolution. An ideal manual for formal training as well as an excellent self-study guide, Analytical Chemistry in a GMP Environment features: * The drug development process in the pharmaceutical industry * Uniform and consistent interpretation of GMP compliance issues * A review of the role of statistics and basic topics in analytical chemistry * An emphasis on high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) methods * Chapters on detectors and quantitative analysis as well as data systems * Methods for ensuring that instruments meet standard operating procedures (SOP) requirements * Extensive appendixes for unifying terms, symbols, and procedural information

Author Biography

JAMES M. MILLER, PhD, is Emeritus Professor of Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Drew University, Madison, New Jersey.<br> AN B. CROWTHER, PhD, is Director of Analytical Services and Systems at the Janssen Research Foundation, a division of Johnson & Johnson.

Table of Contents

Contributors xix
Foreword xxi
Preface xxiii
The Laboratory Analyst's Role in the Drug Development Process
1(30)
Jonathan B. Crowther
William Lauwers
Sagar Adusumalli
Ponniah Shebagamurthi
Introduction
1(4)
The Importance of Analytical Methodology in the Drug Development Process
1(1)
Interdiscipline Use of Analytical Methodology
2(1)
Phases of Drug Development
3(1)
Introductory Summary
4(1)
Requirements of an Analytical Methodology During the Drug Development Process Release and Stability
5(67)
Introduction
5(1)
Discovery Phase
6(1)
Early Development
6(3)
Final Development (Phase III)
9(63)
The Analyst Role in Formulations Development
72
Overview
12(1)
Analytical Testing in Formulations Development
13(1)
Pharmaceutcal Excipients
13(1)
Pharmaceutical Development Summary
13(2)
Review of the Analyst Role in Pharmacokinetics, Toxicology, and Clinical Support
15(8)
Introduction
15(1)
Bioanalytical Considerations
15(3)
Preclinical Pharmacokinetics/Pharmacodynamics
18(1)
Preclinical Safety Studies
19(2)
Mass Balance and Metabolism
21(1)
Clinical Support
21(2)
Stability Program in Pharmaceutical Industry
23(5)
Introduction
23(1)
Goals of the Stability Program
24(1)
ICH Guidelines on Stability Testing of Drug Products
24(2)
Stability Monitoring
26(1)
Stability-Indicating Methods
26(1)
Pharmaceutical Packaging and Stability
26(2)
Stability Summary
28(1)
Chapter Summary
28(3)
References
29(2)
Laboratory Controls and Compliance
31(18)
Henry Avallone
Introduction
31(2)
Laboratory Management
33(2)
Management Responsibility
33(1)
Training
34(1)
Laboratory Controls
35(7)
Laboratory Records
35(3)
Out of Specification/Trend (OOS/OOT)
38(1)
Laboratory Deviations/Nonconformances
39(2)
Test Methods/Procedures/Specifications
41(1)
Calibration and Maintenance
41(1)
Laboratory Compliance
42(5)
General Notices
42(1)
Method Development
43(1)
Method Validation
44(2)
Method Transfer
46(1)
Auditing the Laboratory
46(1)
Use of Outside Testing Laboratories
47(1)
Conclusion
47(2)
References
47(2)
The USP, ICH, and Other Compendial Methods
49(28)
Jennifer G. Feldman
Introduction
49(1)
USP/NF
49(7)
Introduction
49(2)
Organization/Overview
51(2)
USP/NF and the FDA
53(1)
FDA Requirements for Regulatory Submissions/Field Inspections
53(1)
Analysis of Excipients/Raw Materials/Drug Substance/Drug Product
54(1)
``Meets USP'' Labeling
54(1)
Methodology
55(1)
Accept/Reject Criteria
55(1)
Validation
56(1)
European, British, Japanese Pharmacopeias
56(3)
EP, Third Edition
56(1)
BP
57(1)
JP, Thirteenth Edition
58(1)
ICH Guideline
59(15)
Introduction/Role of the Guidelines
59(1)
Summary of the Guidelines
60(14)
Conclusion
74(3)
References
75(2)
Statistics in the Pharmaceutical Analysis Laboratory
77(28)
Alvin J. Melveger
Errors Associated with Making Measurements
78(1)
Systemic Error
79(1)
Random Error
79(1)
Significant Figures and Rounding
79(5)
Number of Significant Figures
79(3)
Rounding
82(2)
Some Definitions
84(7)
Accuracy
84(1)
Precision
85(1)
Absolute Error
85(1)
Relative Error
86(1)
Mean
86(1)
Average Deviation
86(1)
Standard Deviation
87(1)
Relative Standard Deviation
88(1)
Comparison of Precision and Accuracy
88(1)
Standard Error
89(2)
Normal Distribution of Repeated Measurements
91(1)
Student t Test
92(3)
Application of t Test
93(2)
Propagation of Uncertainty (Errors)
95(2)
Addition and Subtraction of Uncertainties
95(1)
Multiplication or Division of Uncertainties
96(1)
Rejection of Outliners
97(1)
Linear Regression Analysis
98(1)
Quality Assurance/Control
99(3)
Conclusion
102(3)
References
102(3)
Basic Analytical Operations and Solution Chemistry
105(44)
Nicholas H. Snow
Wyatt R. Murphy, Jr.
Analytical Reagents
105(2)
Sampling
107(5)
Obtaining a Representative Sample
107(1)
Preparing Samples for Analytical Methods
107(1)
Weighting and Balances
108(2)
Volumetric Glassware
110(1)
Filtering
111(1)
Chemical Equilibrium
112(8)
Equilibrium Constants
112(2)
Le Chatelier's Principle
114(2)
Equilibrium as a Basis for Sample Pretreatment
116(4)
Aqueous Solution Equilibria
120(4)
Introduction
120(1)
Acids and Bases
121(3)
Reduction--Oxidation Equilibria
124(17)
Introduction
124(17)
Karl Fischer Titration
141(3)
Karl Fischer Reagents and Reactions
142(1)
Karl Fischer Titration Procedures
142(1)
Method Development Issues in Karl Fischer Titration
143(1)
Other Methods for Determining Water
144(1)
Loss on Drying
144(1)
Instrumental Methods
145(1)
Miscellaneous Techniques
145(4)
Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Thermal Analysis
145(1)
References
146(3)
Spectroscopy
149(36)
Perlette Abuaf
Alvin J. Melveger
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
149(1)
Wave-Particle Duality
149(2)
Wave Parameters
150(1)
Particle Parameters
151(1)
Transitions and Energies
151(2)
Ultraviolet/Visible Spectroscopy
153(3)
Electron Type
153(1)
Chromophores
153(2)
Conjugation and Spectral Shifts
155(1)
Infrared Spectroscopy
156(5)
Group Frequencies
158(2)
Fingerprinting
160(1)
Beers Law and Quantitative Analysis
161(2)
Transmittance
161(1)
Effect of Concentration on Transmittance
161(1)
Effect of Path Length on Transmittance
162(1)
Instrumentation
163(14)
UV/VIS Instrumentation
164(7)
IR Instrumentation
171(6)
Raman Spectroscopy
177(3)
Raman Instrumentation
180(1)
Near-IR (NIR) Spectroscopy
180(1)
Other Optical and Spectroscopic Techniques
181(3)
Polarimetry
181(1)
Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) and Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
181(1)
Mass Spectroscopy (MS)
182(1)
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
183(1)
Summary
184(1)
General References
184(1)
Chromatographic Principles
185(32)
James M. Miller
Definitions, Terms, and Symbols
185(13)
Chromatography
185(2)
The Chromatographic Process
187(2)
Some Chromatographic Terms and Symbols
189(3)
The Normal Distribution
192(1)
Asymmetry and Tailing Factor
193(3)
Plate Number
196(2)
Comparison of GC and LC
198(1)
Two Important Fundamentals
199(13)
Thermodynamics of Chromatography
199(4)
Kinetics
203(9)
Some Additional Terms
212(3)
Resolution
212(1)
Retardation Factor
213(2)
System Suitability
215(1)
Summary
215(2)
References
216(1)
Gas Chromatography
217(38)
James M. Miller
Harold M. McNair
Some Historical Notes
217(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages
218(1)
Classification of GC
219(1)
Columns
220(6)
Stationary Phases
220(1)
Column Materials
221(1)
Comparison of Column Types
222(1)
Solid Supports
223(1)
Solid Stationary Phases (GSC)
224(2)
Other Instrument Components
226(15)
Carrier Gas
227(2)
Flow Control and Measurement
229(1)
Sample Inlets and Sampling Devices
229(5)
Detectors
234(7)
Temperature Considerations
241(7)
Temperature Zones
241(2)
Programmed Temperature GC (PTGC)
243(5)
Optimization and Method Development
248(1)
Column Selection
248(1)
Optimization According to Basic Principles
248(1)
Some Special Topics
249(2)
Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS)
249(1)
Derivatization
250(1)
Headspace Sampling
250(1)
USP
250(1)
Applications
251(4)
Analysis of Residual Solvents
251(1)
References
252(3)
Liquid Chromatography: Basic Overview
255(28)
Lee N. Polite
Introduction
255(6)
Importance of HPLC in the Pharmaceutical Industry
255(1)
Column Versus Planar Liquid Chromatography
256(1)
Low-Pressure Versus High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography
256(2)
Advantages and Disadvantages of HPLC
258(1)
Isocratic Versus Gradient Elution
258(3)
Column Methods
261(7)
Normal Phase
261(1)
Reversed Phase
262(1)
Ion-Exchange Chromatography
263(1)
Ion Chromatography (IC)
264(1)
Ion Pair Chromatography (IPC)
265(1)
Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC)
266(2)
Planar Methods: TLC and PC
268(2)
Quick and Dirty Procedures
268(1)
Automation and Special Equipment
269(1)
High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (HPTLC)
269(1)
Advantages and Disadvantages of TLC
269(1)
USP
270(1)
Instrumentation for HPLC
270(9)
Pumps
270(2)
Sample Introduction Devices
272(1)
Tubing and Connectors
273(1)
Detectors
274(3)
Troubleshooting
277(2)
Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)
279(4)
CE Systems
280(1)
References
281(2)
HPLC Column Parameters
283(26)
Richard Hartwick
Column Equivalency
284(1)
Review of Chromatographic Parameters
285(2)
Parameters Necessary for Equivalent Columns
287(8)
Retentiveness and Selectivity
288(7)
Peak Shape
295(1)
Column Efficiency
295(7)
Resolution
297(1)
Reduced Plate Heights to Estimate Expected Column Efficiencies
297(5)
Putting It All Together---Selecting an Equivalent Column
302(7)
Choosing Equivalent Columns: An Example
303(4)
References
307(2)
Dissolution
309(22)
Ross Kirchhoefer
Rudy Peeters
Introduction
309(2)
History
310(1)
Early Improvements in Dissolution Equipment
311(1)
Dissolution Basics
311(4)
Disintegration Tests
311(2)
Elementary Theory
313(1)
Practical Aspects
313(1)
Dissolution Specifications
314(1)
USP/NF Pharmacopeia General Chapter <711>
315(11)
Apparatii
315(1)
Parameters Affecting the Dissolution Test
315(7)
Test Equipment
322(1)
Stage Testing
322(1)
Calibrators
323(1)
Sampling
323(3)
Measurement of the Pharmaceutical Active
326(2)
Analyst Checklist
328(3)
References
328(3)
Analytical Method Development for Assay and Impurity Determination in Drug Substances and Drug Products
331(40)
Jonathan B. Crowther
Paul Salomons
Cindi Callaghan
Background
331(1)
Introduction
332(6)
Specifications and Their Influence on Method Development
333(1)
International Guidelines and Their Influence on Method Development
333(5)
The Method Development Life Cycle---Overview
338(1)
Planning
338(9)
Review Company Policy on Method Development/Validation
338(2)
Defining the Objectives/Requirements of the Method
340(1)
Illustration of Method Requirements
341(3)
Information Gathering
344(2)
Resource Gathering: Resources/Instrumentation/Materials and Standards
346(1)
Documentation: Development Plan
346(1)
Method Development---General Considerations
347(4)
Initial Method Development
347(1)
Method Optimization
348(1)
Method Prevalidation Evaluation
348(1)
Robustness
349(1)
System Suitability
350(1)
Documentation
351(2)
Method Development Report
351(2)
Completing Method Development
353(1)
Method Development---Experimental Considerations
353(8)
Introduction
353(1)
General Components of HPLC Method Development
353(6)
Obtaining Sufficient Resolution---Considering Method Requirements
359(2)
Validation Activities
361(2)
Documentation---Protocol
362(1)
Method Validation---Experimental
362(1)
Documentation---Report
362(1)
Analytical Method Transfer
363(1)
Documentation---Protocol
363(1)
Method Transfer---Experimental
364(1)
Documentation---Transfer Report
364(1)
Periodic Review
364(1)
Reference Standards and Samples to Support Stability Indicating Method Development
365(3)
Types of Standards
365(1)
Handling of Standards
366(2)
Summary
368(3)
References
369(2)
Some Principles of Quantitative Analysis
371(24)
James M. Miller
Detector Classifications (Chromatographic)
372(3)
Concentration Versus Mass Flow Rate
372(1)
Bulk Property Versus Solute Property
372(2)
Selective Versus Universal
374(1)
Detector Characteristics
375(10)
Noise
375(2)
Time Constant
377(4)
Cell Volume
381(1)
Signal
381(4)
Methods of Quantitative Analysis
385(7)
Standards and Calibration
385(2)
External Standard
387(1)
Area Normalization
388(1)
Area Normalization with Response Factors
388(1)
Internal Standard Method
389(1)
Standard Addition Method
390(1)
Summary
391(1)
Additional Topics
392(3)
Trace Analysis
392(1)
The High--Low Method for HPLC
392(1)
References
392(3)
Laboratory Data Systems
395(28)
R. D. McDowall
Introduction
395(2)
Data and Information Management
395(1)
Purpose of Data Systems
396(1)
Types of Data System
396(1)
Laboratory Information Management Systems (LIMS)
397(4)
A LIMS Has Two Targets
398(1)
Benefits of a LIMS
399(1)
Regulatory Issues
400(1)
Chromatography Data Systems
401(2)
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion
403(9)
Rationale for A/D Conversion
403(1)
Priciples of A/D Conversion
403(5)
Peak Detection
408(4)
CDS Workflow
412(8)
Sequence of Data System Operation
412(5)
Instrument Control
417(1)
Interfacing CDS to Laboratory Information Management Systems
418(2)
Concluding Remarks
420(3)
References
420(3)
Qualification of Laboratory Instrumentation, Validation, and Transfer of Analytical Methods
423(60)
Jonathan B. Crowther
M. Ilias Jimidar
Nico Niemeijer
Paul Salomons
Introduction
423(1)
Instrument Qualification
424(5)
Instrumentation Life Cycle
425(1)
Introduction---Qualification Versus Calibration
426(1)
Prospective Versus Retrospective
426(3)
Instrument Qualification Process---Assembly of the Qualification Team
429(1)
The Qualification Protocol
429(1)
IQ Protocol
430(5)
Installation Qualification
430(2)
Operational Qualification
432(1)
Performance Qualification
432(1)
Ongoing Monitoring
432(1)
Final Qualification Report
433(2)
Instrument Qualification Summary
435(1)
Analytical Method Validation
435(6)
Introduction to Method Validation
435(1)
Determining the Characteristics of the Validation
436(1)
Definitions
436(2)
Method Validation Documentation
438(3)
A Systematic Approach to Validation Experimentation
441(15)
Determination of Method Specificity
441(2)
Demonstration of Linearity and Range; Determination of Relative Response Factor
443(3)
Determination of Detection and Quantitation Limit
446(1)
Demonstration of Accuracy of the Method
446(1)
Determination of Method Precision
447(1)
Target Acceptance Criteria
447(4)
Final Method---Minor Method Refinement
451(1)
Validation Summary
451(2)
Method Transfer
453(1)
Transfer Documentation
454(1)
Method Transfer Protocol
455(1)
Method Transfer Experimental
456(1)
Transfer Summary and Approval
456(1)
Chapter Summary
456(3)
References
457(2)
APPENDIXES
I List of Symbols and Acronyms
459(8)
II Glossary of Terms Used in ICH Documents
467(6)
III Universal Tests, Dosage-Form-Specific Tests, and Acceptance Criteria
473(4)
IV USP Chromatographic Phases
477(6)
Index 483

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