The authors estimate that the cost of corrosion and scaling in the US is about 400 billion dollars per year. Scale, or deposits, that can build up in the wellbore tubulars and other downhole components not only cause considerable damage to the life of the well, but an unnecessary amount of downtime in well completion and production. Infrastructure provides the support for the well's system, and with oil and gas consumption on the rise and transportation required to feed that demand, all petroleum and environmental engineers must have accurate corrosion and scaling information. This book will teach the engineer how to: Enhance the reliability and integrity of corrosion and scale control technologies, Manage scale deposits, prevent fatigue and ensure equipment integrity, Learn realistic rules-of-thumb from present-day oilfield case histories, Understand basic terminology from an extensive glossary. Perfect for the student as well as the practicing engineer, The Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum and Environmental Engineers will provide the quick reference that engineers need to gather all the necessary information on corrosion and scaling and protect equipment from future problems. Book jacket.

George V. Chilingar, PhD is a professor of petroleum and environmental engineering at the University of Southern California. He is also the International Ambassador of the University Ryan Mourhatch has a bachelor of science degree from Tehran Polytechnic University (Amir Kabir) and is completing a PhD degree in chemical engineering from the University of Southern California Ghazi Dhafer Al-Qahtani completed his masters degree of science in petroleum engineering from the University of Southern California in 2006. Before that, he graduated from King Fahad University of Petroleum and Minerals with a bachelor of science degree in petroleum engineering in 2001

Acknowledgments	p. xiii
Preface	p. xv
Foreword	p. xvii
Introduction to Corrosion	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Definition of Corrosion	p. 2
Introduction to Electrochemistry	p. 2
Corrosion Agents in Drilling and Producing Operations	p. 4
Requirements for Electrochemical Corrosion	p. 5
Components of Electrochemical Corrosion	p. 10
Chemistry of Corrosion and Electromotive Force Series	p. 11
Actual Electrode Potentials	p. 12
Galvanic Series	p. 13
Cathode/Anode Areal Ratio	p. 14
Polarization	p. 14
Corrosion of Steel	p. 16
Gaseous Corrodants	p. 17
Oxygen	p. 18
Hydrogen Sulfide	p. 19
Carbon Dioxide	p. 23
Alkalinity of Environment	p. 24
Cathodic Protection	p. 27
Role of Bacteria in Corrosion	p. 27
Corrosion in Gas-Condensate Wells	p. 28
Corrosion Rate Measurement Units	p. 31
Types of Corrosion	p. 35
Introduction	p. 35
Sweet Corrosion	p. 36
Sour Corrosion	p. 37
Classes of Corrosion	p. 38
Stress-Induced Corrosion	p. 41
Types of Cracking in Drilling and Producing Environments	p. 42
Hydrogen Embrittlement (Sulfide Cracking)	p. 42
Hydrogen Blistering	p. 43
Corrosion Fatigue	p. 43
Microbial Corrosion	p. 49
Introduction	p. 49
Microbial Growth and Metabolism	p. 52
Microbes Associated with Oilfield Corrosion	p. 57
Microbial Interaction with Produced Oil	p. 59
Microorganisms in Corrosion	p. 59
Prokaryotes	p. 60
Eukaryotes	p. 62
Different Mechanisms of Microbial Corrosion	p. 62
Corrosion Inhibition by Bacteria	p. 64
Microbial Corrosion Control	p. 64
Corrosion Control and Detection	p. 71
Introduction to Corrosion Control	p. 71
Cathodic Protection	p. 71
Conditions for the Steady State or Limiting Corrosion Rate	p. 75
Dangerous Inhibitors	p. 79
Inhibitors and Passivators	p. 79
Classification of Inhibitors	p. 81
Coating	p. 84
Detection of Corrosion	p. 86
Chemical Tests	p. 86
Microbial Tests	p. 86
Electrochemical Tests	p. 87
Pipeline Tests	p. 87
Measurement of Corrosion	p. 88
Visual Inspection	p. 88
Caliper Surveys	p. 88
Casing Thickness Logs	p. 89
Radiography	p. 89
Nondestructive Test Methods	p. 89
Metal Loss Rate Tests Using Coupons	p. 90
Other Corrosion Rate Monitors	p. 90
Casing and Pipeline Corrosion	p. 93
Introduction	p. 93
Types of Casing	p. 93
Cassion Pipe	p. 94
Conductor Pipe	p. 94
Surface Casing	p. 96
Intermediate Casing	p. 96
Production Casing	p. 97
Liners	p. 97
Corrosion of Steel	p. 99
External Casing Corrosion	p. 99
Casing Corrosion Inspection Tools	p. 100
Protection of Casing from Corrosion	p. 102
Wellhead Insulation	p. 103
Cementation	p. 103
Completion Fluids	p. 104
Steel Grades	p. 105
Casing Leaks	p. 106
Cathodic Protection of Casing	p. 106
Interaction of Old with New Pipeline	p. 113
Scaling	p. 117
Hardness and Alkalinity	p. 117
Mineral Scales	p. 118
Calcium Carbonate Scale	p. 118
Sulfate Scales	p. 123
Prediction of Scale Formation	p. 123
Solubilities of Various Sulfates and Carbonates	p. 131
Solubility of Calcite, Dolomite, and Magnesite and Mixture of These Carbonates	p. 131
Relative Permeability Concepts	p. 132
Effect of Water Hardness on Relative Permeability Curves	p. 135
Effect of Water Chemistry on Oil Recovery	p. 137
Scale Inhibition	p. 137
Water Quality Control	p. 141
Introduction	p. 141
Injection Suitability	p. 142
Clay Swelling	p. 142
Formation and Deposition of Insoluble Material in the Formation	p. 144
Increase in Oil Saturation	p. 145
Suspended Solids	p. 146
Movement of Formation Fines	p. 147
Sources of Suspended Solids	p. 148
Corrosion	p. 150
Some Causes of Waterflood Corrosion	p. 152
Carbon Dioxide	p. 152
Hydrogen Sulfide	p. 152
Oxygen	p. 153
Interactions of the Gases	p. 154
Bacterial Corrosion (See Chapter 3)	p. 155
Use of Seawater for Injection Purposes	p. 155
Characteristics of Seawater	p. 156
Dissolved Oxygen	p. 157
Calcium Carbonate Saturation	p. 157
pH of Seawater	p. 157
High Sulfate Ion Content	p. 158
Magnesium Ion	p. 158
Marine Life	p. 158
Seasonal Changes in Composition of Seawater	p. 159
Oil Content	p. 159
Selection of Water Intake Location	p. 159
Shallow Well in Seawater Aquifer	p. 160
Intake from Nearshore Area	p. 160
Offshore Intake	p. 161
Design of Water Intake	p. 161
Trash Screen	p. 161
Fine Screen	p. 161
Chlorination	p. 162
Filtration	p. 162
Deaeration of Seawater	p. 163
Oxygen Scavenging	p. 163
Stabilization of Seawater	p. 164
Temperature of Seawater	p. 164
Biocidal Treatment of Seawater	p. 165
Corrosion Inhibition	p. 165
Test Methods Used in Waterflooding Operations	p. 166
Dissolved Oxygen	p. 166
pH Change	p. 167
The Membrane Filter Test	p. 168
Total Iron Count Increase	p. 169
Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria	p. 169
Total Bacteria	p. 170
Corrosion Coupons	p. 171
Significance of Various Tests	p. 173
Reporting of Test Data	p. 183
COPRA Correlation	p. 183
Preparation of Water for Subsurface Injection	p. 184
Oil Removal	p. 185
Gravity Separation	p. 186
Flotation	p. 188
Removal of Solids (Filtration)	p. 189
Slow Sand Filters	p. 190
Rapid Sand Filters	p. 190
High-Rate Rapid Sand Filters	p. 191
Diatomaceous Earth Filters	p. 194
Selection of Diatomite	p. 194
Removal of Dissolved Gases	p. 196
Equipment Considerations	p. 196
Pipelines	p. 196
Separators	p. 197
Volume and Origin of Suspended Material to Be Removed	p. 198
Aggressiveness of Waters	p. 199
Value of Space on Which Facilities Are to Be Located	p. 199
Filtration Equipment	p. 199
Clarification	p. 200
In-line Flocculation Systems	p. 200
Filter-aid Filters and In-line Flocculation Filters	p. 201
Degassing Equipment	p. 202
Deaeration Equipment	p. 202
Chemical Mixing and Feed Equipment	p. 202
Economics of Corrosion	p. 209
Introduction	p. 209
Direct and Indirect Cost of Corrosion	p. 210
Major Industrial Categories of Corrosion Costs	p. 211
Infrastructure	p. 212
Utilities	p. 213
Production and Manufacturing	p. 214
Corrosion-Control Economics and Preventive Methods	p. 217
Galvanic Versus Imposed Direct Electrical Current in Cathodic Protection	p. 219
Sample Problems and Questions	p. 223
Sample Problems and Questions (Solutions and Answers are Provided)	p. 223
Sample Questions and Problems (No Solutions)	p. 233
Glossary	p. 237
Conversion of Units	p. 257
Temperature Conversion Formulas	p. 264
Approximate Equivalents	p. 264
Theoretical Aspects	p. 265
Index	p. 269
Table of Contents provided by Ingram. All Rights Reserved.

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Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum and Environmental Engineers : A Handbook for Petroleum and Environmental Engineers

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