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9780521554985

Materials Modification by Electronic Excitation

by
  • ISBN13:

    9780521554985

  • ISBN10:

    0521554985

  • Format: Hardcover
  • Copyright: 2000-12-11
  • Publisher: Cambridge University Press
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List Price: $210.00

Summary

Photography is a well-known example of changing a material by exciting it with light. This book examines a special case of a more general approach, which uses new lasers or electron beams to address some of the current needs emerging in microelectronics, photonics, and nanotechnology. It analyzes the important features of the changes induced by electronic excitation, identifies what is critical, and provides a basis from which materials modification can be developed successfully. It addresses ideas such as energy localization and charge localization, with detailed comparisons of experiment and theory. It also identifies the ways this understanding links to technological needs, such as selective removal of material, controlled changes, altering the balance between process steps, and possibilities of quantum control. This book will be of particular interest to research workers in physics, chemistry, electronic engineering and materials science.

Table of Contents

Preface xii
Concepts: Excitation, polarons and electronic structure
1(56)
Basic ideas about the localisation of charge and energy
1(6)
The polaron concept
3(3)
Excitation of metals and insulators: What is special about insulators?
6(1)
Methods of excitation
7(18)
Excitation by electromagnetic radiation
7(8)
Excitation by electrons
15(4)
Other forms of particle excitation
19(4)
Other forms of excitation
23(2)
Structure at the atomic scale
25(6)
Structural issues: Where do crystalline and amorphous materials differ?
25(2)
The varied forms of `amorphous'
27(1)
Mesostructure
28(3)
Basic issues of electronic structure
31(14)
Band structures: General features for crystalline and amorphous solids
31(3)
Approaches to electronic structure
34(1)
Special cases
35(3)
Localising charge
38(7)
Excitation and excited states
45(7)
Optical excitation
46(2)
Excitation by ionising radiation
48(1)
Excitation at higher energies
49(3)
Excitation at higher intensities
52(1)
Excitation of defects and recovery after excitation
52(5)
Energy deposition and redistribution in solids
57(28)
Interactions of charged particles with solids
58(9)
Theory of the interaction of charged particles with solids
67(4)
Issues: Beyond the standard models
71(3)
Challenges: Non-equilibrium situations
74(1)
Thermal diffusion: Processes near thermal equilibrium
75(4)
The phenomenology of diffusion rates: The Arrhenius and Meyer-Neldel (compensation) expressions
76(1)
Special cases of diffusion
77(2)
Transport and capture processes
79(6)
Geminate recombination
79(2)
Rate theory and defect aggregates
81(4)
Electron-lattice coupling and its consequences
85(53)
Basics of electron-lattice coupling
85(3)
The configuration coordinate diagram
88(8)
The basic configuration coordinate model
89(1)
Choices of configuration coordinate
90(1)
Simple cases: The F centre
91(2)
Optical transitions
93(2)
Charge transfer transitions
95(1)
Relaxation energies and defect stabiliy
96(12)
Stability and instability
97(1)
Examples of charge state stability
98(1)
Stability of self-trapped polarons: Strategies
99(2)
Stability of small polarons: Static approaches
101(1)
Stability of small polarons: Microscopic calculation of the relaxation energy
102(3)
Small-polaron formation energy: Energy cycles
105(1)
Specific properties of the self-trapped exciton (STX) state
106(2)
Mobilities and charge transport in non-metals
108(6)
Experimental data on mobilities
108(1)
Small polarons and large polarons: Ideas about motion
108(2)
Self-trapped excitons versus self-trapped holes: Exciton bandwidths
110(1)
Classical diffusion of ions and other over-the-barrier processes
110(3)
Diffusion of self-trapped carriers
113(1)
Non-radiative transitions I: Cooling transitions
114(13)
Cooling of atomic motion
114(6)
Transitions from one energy surface to another
120(2)
Cooling of electronic excitation: Free carrier states
122(3)
Cooling of electronic excitation: Capture and cooling of bound carrier states
125(2)
Non-radiative transitions II: Absolute rates
127(5)
Kinetics and dynamics
127(1)
Multiphonon non-radiatve transitions
128(4)
Non-radiative transitions III: Localisation processes and their rates
132(6)
Routes to the self-trapped state
132(3)
Quantum molecular dynamics approaches
135(1)
Solvation of an electron in water
135(1)
Frozen Gaussian methods
136(2)
Self-trapping
138(49)
Self-trapped carriers in halides
138(12)
Self-trapped electrons
140(1)
Self-trapped holes
141(4)
Relaxation processes of self-trapped holes
145(4)
Extrinsic and perturbed self-trapped holes
149(1)
Self-trapped carriers in oxides
150(2)
Self-trapped excitons in halides
152(19)
AgCl
154(1)
Alkali halides with the NaCl structure
155(11)
Other halides
166(5)
Self-trapped excitons in oxides
171(10)
Self-trapped excitons in oxides with closed-shell cations
171(9)
Self-trapped excitons of oxides with open-shell cations
180(1)
Self-trapped excitons in crystalline semiconductors
181(6)
Summary
185(2)
Local lattice modification by electronic excitation of halides
187(37)
Excitonic mechanisms for defect formation
188(19)
Adiabatic potential energy surfaces and relaxation channels
188(5)
Experimental evidence for three channels for defect pair formation in alkali halides
193(2)
Branching between the relaxation channels from exciton to defect pair
195(6)
Thermal conversion from self-trapped exciton to defect pair
201(4)
Other materials in which the excitonic mechanism is effective
205(2)
Defect formation by other mechanisms
207(9)
Defect formation from interacting excitons
207(1)
Defect generation by two-hole localisation
208(1)
The photographic process in silver halides
209(5)
Photochromic and photosensitive glasses
214(1)
Creation of defect pairs in the cation sublattice
215(1)
Defects created by ionising radiation
216(8)
Defect pairs created at low temperatures
217(2)
Stabilisation of interstitials
219(4)
Summary
223(1)
Local lattice modification by electronic excitation of crystalline insulating oxides
224(21)
Basic phenomena
224(6)
Oxides and halides: Basics and similarities
224(1)
Self-trapping in oxides
225(1)
Charge transfer and colour
226(2)
Non-linear processes and negative U
228(1)
Amorphisation
229(1)
Effects induced under electron beam excitation
230(4)
Damage and degradation
230(2)
Amorphisation by electron beams
232(1)
Transient defects
233(1)
Electrical breakdown and related phenomena
234(11)
Metal-insulator transitions in oxide films
235(2)
Electrical breakdown in simple ceramic oxides, like MgO and alumina
237(1)
Breakdown in the oxide on silicon
238(4)
Radiation-induced electrical degradation
242(2)
Summary
244(1)
Local lattice modification of semiconductors by electronic excitation
245(30)
General comparisons: Switching between states and motion
245(2)
Enhanced diffusion
247(6)
Characteristics of enhanced diffusion
247(3)
Routes to enhanced diffusion
250(2)
Understanding enhanced diffusion
252(1)
Types of enhanced diffusion
253(1)
Local heating models (`hot-spot' or `phonon-kick' mechanisms)
253(6)
The model of Weeks, Tully, and Kimerling
254(1)
The model of Masri and Stoneham
254(1)
The model of Sumi
255(1)
Other general issues
256(3)
Local excitation models, including the Bourgoin-Corbett mechanism
259(7)
Case I: Energy extrema at the same site
260(1)
Case II: Energy surfaces with extrema at different sites
261(2)
The Bourgoin-Corbett model
263(1)
Analogous systems: Metastability and reorientation
264(2)
How can the mechanisms be distinguished from each other?
266(3)
Consistency arguments
267(1)
Reasonableness arguments
267(1)
Are charge state changes possible and significant?
268(1)
Issues in enhanced diffusion: Further discussion of mechanisms
269(6)
Competing processes: Isotope effects in electrical isolation
269(1)
Dislocation growth and motion
270(3)
Enhanced oxidation
273(1)
Summary
274(1)
Local lattice modification ofamorphous materials by electronic excitation
275(50)
Electrons, holes, and excitons in amorphous solids
280(4)
The optical absorption edge
280(2)
Motion of electrons and holes
282(2)
Optical absorption and luminescence
284(16)
Amorphous silicas: a-SiO2
287(5)
Chalcogenides
292(2)
Diamond-like carbon (a-C:H; DLC) and amorphous silicon (a-Si:H)
294(6)
Defect formation
300(13)
Amorphous silicas: a-SiO2
301(8)
Chalcogenides
309(2)
Amorphous silicon: a-Si:H
311(2)
Photo-induced structural changes: Photodarkening
313(6)
Ion-beam-induced structural changes
319(6)
Ion-induced crystallisation and amorphisation of silicate glasses
319(2)
Appendix: Basic defects in glasses
321(3)
Summary
324(1)
Atomic emission and surface modification
325(54)
Energy absorption near surfaces
325(18)
Perfect surfaces
327(1)
Near-surface defects
328(2)
Surface defects
330(3)
Real surfaces: Recognising imperfection
333(1)
Surface topography
333(2)
Excitation of surface states
335(1)
Surface excitation following bulk excitation
335(2)
Exoelectron emission
337(2)
Luminescence from surfaces
339(1)
Local lattice modification on surfaces
339(2)
Core excitation on surfaces
341(1)
Laser excitation of surfaces
341(2)
Sputtering and surface modification of halides
343(21)
Excitons and holes on surfaces
343(2)
Mechanisms for the sputtering of alkali halides
345(15)
Sputtering of other halides
360(4)
Sputtering and surface modification of oxides
364(4)
Emission by core excitation
364(1)
Surface modification of quartz
365(2)
Laser excitation of other oxides
367(1)
Semiconductors
368(11)
Atomic emissions from semiconductors by laser irradiation
369(4)
STM observation of photo-induced atomic emission from Si surfaces
373(1)
Photo-induced surface modification of compound semiconductors
374(1)
Scanning probe microscopy removal of atoms
375(3)
Summary
378(1)
Interface reactions induced by electronic excitation
379(28)
Atomic and electronic structures of the interfaces
380(7)
Interface atomic structures
380(3)
Interfaces between crystalline and non-crystalline solids
383(4)
Defects at interfaces
387(1)
Energy and charge deposition near interfaces: The modification of interfaces
387(2)
Energy deposition by elastic encounters
387(1)
Energy deposition by electronic excitation
388(1)
Photo-induced processes at interfaces
389(3)
Luminescence at interfaces
389(1)
Modification of interface structures
390(2)
Mixing and movement of ions
392(2)
Mixing by elastic encounters
392(1)
Mixing by electronic excitation
393(1)
Radiation-enhanced adhesion
394(6)
Phenomenology
394(1)
Summary of existing data
395(2)
How to interpret radiation-enhanced adhesion
397(2)
Related phenomena: Anodic bonding
399(1)
Oxidation and chemical reactions at interfaces
400(4)
Amorphisation and recrystallisation
404(3)
Summary
405(2)
High excitation intensities
407(37)
Introduction
407(8)
Thermal models of modification
409(1)
Non-uniform damage
410(1)
The early stages of energy deposition
411(1)
Processing by high-intensity excitation
412(1)
Sputtering by ion beams
413(2)
Laser annealing
415(3)
Laser damage
418(4)
Laser ablation
422(9)
Energy absorption and transfer
423(2)
Gaps less than the laser photon energy
425(1)
Gaps in excess of the laser photon energy: Effects of pre-existing defects
426(3)
Mesoscopic modelling of laser ablation
429(2)
Lithography and nanolithography
431(4)
Lithography by electron beams
431(2)
Nanolithography of MgO and other oxides
433(2)
Nanolithography and analogous phenomena in other inorganic materials
435(1)
Irradiation with heavy ions
435(9)
Processes taking place near GeV heavy-ion paths in the first few femtoseconds
436(2)
Registration of heavy-ion tracks
438(1)
Effects of heavy-ion irradiation on surfaces and interfaces
439(1)
The Coulomb explosion model
440(1)
Thermal spike model
441(1)
Excitonic model
441(2)
Summary
443(1)
Applications of materials modification by excitation
444(23)
Aims of materials modification
444(4)
Modifying surface and near-surface regions
448(5)
Modifying the bulk solid
453(5)
Damage and deterioration
458(4)
Changing rates and altering processes
462(2)
Concluding comments
464(3)
Summary
465(2)
References 467(42)
Index 509

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