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9780471176442

Ecotoxicology Ecological Fundamentals, Chemical Exposure, and Biological Effects

by ; ; ;
  • ISBN13:

    9780471176442

  • ISBN10:

    0471176443

  • Edition: 1st
  • Format: Hardcover
  • Copyright: 1997-12-02
  • Publisher: Wiley-Interscience

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Summary

Incorporating numerous examples and case studies, this cutting-edge reference is an invaluable resource for those working in environmental toxicology, chemistry, ecology, medicine, engineering, and other related disciplines.

Author Biography

GERRIT SCH__RMANN, PhD, is Head of the Department of Chemical Ecotoxicology at the UFZ Centre for Environmental Research in Leipzig and Honorary Professor at the University of Leipzig, Germany. His research interests include the exposure, transformation, bioaccumulation and ecotoxicological profile of xenobiotics in aquatic and terrestrial environments, prediction of physicochemical properties and molecular reactivity of compounds, structure-activity relationships and modes of chemical toxicity, and methods for the hazard and risk assessment of chemicals.<br> <br> A. MARKERT, PhD, is Professor of Environmental High Technology and Director of the International Graduate School (IHI) in Zittau, Germany. His professional interests include the biochemistry of trace substances in the water/soil/plant system, instrumental analysis of chemical elements, eco- and human-toxicological aspects of hazardous substances, pollution control by use of bioindicators and technologies for waste management, environmental restoration, and remedial action on soils.

Table of Contents

List of Contributors xxvii
PART 1 HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION AND ECOLOGICAL FUNDAMENTALS 3(162)
1 Ecotoxicological Research--Historical Development and Perspectives
3(14)
Sven Erik Jorgensen
1.1 Summary
3(1)
1.2 When Did It Start?
4(1)
1.3 Modelling and Ecotoxicology
5(3)
1.4 The Trends in the 1980s
8(1)
1.5 Estimation of Ecotoxicological Properties
9(5)
1.6 Ecosystem Considerations
14(1)
1.7 References
15(2)
2 Ecosystem Principles for Ecotoxicological Analyses
17(58)
Helmut Lieth
2.1 Summary
17(1)
2.2 Introduction
18(5)
2.3 Definition of an Ecosystem
23(6)
2.4 The Structure of Ecosystems
29(21)
2.4.1 Physiognomic Structure
30(11)
2.4.2 Chemical Structure
41(1)
2.4.3 Elemental Differences
41(4)
2.4.4 Differences Between Chemical Compounds
45(3)
2.4.5 Genetic Structure
48(1)
2.4.6 Information Structure
49(1)
2.4.7 Physical Structure
49(1)
2.5 The Function of Ecosystems
50(16)
2.5.1 Energy Flow
51(6)
2.5.2 The Flow of Material
57(9)
2.5.3 The Flow of Information
66(1)
2.6 Ecotoxicology and Ecosystems
66(2)
2.7 References
68(7)
2.7.1 Literature
68(3)
2.7.2 Literature List for Element Concentrations in Halophytes (Table 2.1. Column 10)
71(2)
2.7.3 Internet Citations
73(2)
3 Sensitivity of Ecosystems and Ecotones
75(42)
Otto Franzle
3.1 Summary
75(1)
3.2 Introduction
76(1)
3.3 Population and Community Stability
76(17)
3.3.1 Different Notions of Stability
76(1)
3.3.2 Demographic Measures of Stability
77(11)
3.3.3 Nondemographic Measures of Stability
88(5)
3.4 Sensitivity of the Soil System
93(7)
3.4.1 Sensitivity-Related Soil Qualities and Processes
93(2)
3.4.2 Ecological Soil Functions as Sensitivity Measures
95(5)
3.5 Ecotones
100(6)
3.5.1 Ecotone Typology
100(5)
3.5.2 Sensitivity of Ecotones
105(1)
3.6 Sensitivity of Aquatic Ecosystems
106(4)
3.6.1 Reactions of Aquatic Ecosystems to Stress
107(2)
3.6.2 Sensitivity to Different Stressors
109(1)
3.7 Appraisal
110(2)
3.8 References
112(5)
4 Population Dynamics of Plants Under Exposure and the Selection of Resistance
117(16)
Wilfried H. O. Ernst
4.1 Summary
117(1)
4.2 Introduction
118(1)
4.3 Quantitative Principles of Population Dynamics in Plants
118(2)
4.4 Qualitative Principles of Population Dynamics
120(2)
4.5 Reaction Pattern to Exposure--The Dose
122(3)
4.6 Exposure Concentration and Exposure Time
125(2)
4.7 Exposure Time and Life History
127(1)
4.8 Conclusion
128(1)
4.9 References
129(4)
5 Community Ecology and Population Interactions in Freshwater Systems
133(32)
Bruno Streit
5.1 Summary
133(1)
5.2 Toxicants and Communities
134(2)
5.3 Abiotic and Biotic Factors Influencing Communities
136(2)
5.4 Why Concentrate on Freshwater Systems in this Chapter?
138(1)
5.5 The Biological Community: Superorganism or Loose Species Assemblage?
138(3)
5.6 Classifications and Characterizations of Freshwater Communities
141(4)
5.7 Many Niches for Many Species
145(3)
5.8 Two-Level Trophic Interactions
148(4)
5.9 Multilevel Trophic Interactions
152(2)
5.10 Nontrophic Interferences
154(3)
5.11 Conclusions: How Should Toxic Effects on Communities be Interpreted?
157(1)
5.12 Outlook
158(1)
5.13 References
159(6)
PART 2 CHEMICALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT 165(274)
6 Distribution and Biogeochemistry of Inorganic Chemicals in the Environment
165(58)
Bernd Markert
6.1 Summary
165(1)
6.2 Occurrence of Chemical Elements in the Environment
166(4)
6.3 The Significance of Chemical Elements in Living Organisms
170(6)
6.3.1 Interelemental Correlations
172(2)
6.3.2 The Biological Function of Individual Elements
174(1)
6.3.3 The Uptake Form of Individual Elements by the Plant
175(1)
6.4 The Emission of Chemical Elements into the Environment
176(1)
6.5 Cycles and Residence Times of Chemical Elements in the Environment
177(10)
6.5.1 Nitrogen as an Example of a Macronutrient and "Environmental Pollutant"
179(2)
6.5.2 Tin as an Example of a Microelement That is Both Essential and Toxic
181(6)
6.6 Remedial Measures for Soils Contaminated with Heavy Metals
187(3)
6.7 References
190(9)
Appendix A.6.1 Essentiality, Occurrence, Toxicity and Uptake Form of Individual Elements in the Environment
199(16)
Appendix A.6.2 Estimated Annual Production of Individual Elements in the Year 2000 (Unless Otherwise Specified) and Examples of Their Technical Application
215(8)
7 Speciation of Chemical Elements in the Environment
223(14)
Rolf-Dieter Wilken
7.1 Summary
223(1)
7.2 Introduction
224(1)
7.3 What Does "Speciation" Mean?
224(1)
7.4 Speciation of Elements
224(6)
7.4.1 Classically Defined Species
225(1)
7.4.2 Operationally Defined Species
225(1)
7.4.3 Dynamics of Species
226(4)
7.5 Analytical Tools for Species Determination
230(3)
7.6 Future Aspects
233(1)
7.6.1 Measurement Needed
233(1)
7.6.2 Remediation Approaches
233(1)
7.7 Outlook
234(1)
7.8 References
234(3)
8 Multimedia Mass Balance Models of Chemical Distribution and Fate
237(22)
Don Mackay
8.1 Summary
237(1)
8.2 Introduction
238(1)
8.3 Mathematical Basis
239(2)
8.4 Environmental Media
241(1)
8.5 Levels of Complexity
242(1)
8.6 Model Structure and Variables
243(2)
8.7 Existing Models
245(2)
8.7.1 Fugacity Models
245(1)
8.7.2 Nonfugacity Models
246(1)
8.7.3 Round Robins
246(1)
8.8 An Illustration of a Multimedia Model
247(6)
8.8.1 Level I
247(1)
8.8.2 Level II
248(1)
8.8.3 Level III
249(4)
8.9 Applications of Multimedia Models
253(2)
8.10 Conclusions
255(1)
8.11 References
256(3)
9 Abiotic Transformation Reactions
259(24)
Eric J. Weber
9.1 Summary
259(1)
9.2 Introduction
260(1)
9.3 Hydrolysis
260(6)
9.3.1 Hydrolysis Kinetics
261(2)
9.3.2 Mechanisms of Hydrolysis
263(3)
9.4 Redox Reactions
266(12)
9.4.1 Oxidation
267(4)
9.4.2 Reduction
271(6)
9.4.3 Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships in Redox Reactions
277(1)
9.5 Conclusions
278(1)
9.6 References
279(4)
10 Transformation of Chlorinated Xenobiotics in the Environment
283(35)
Heidelore Fiedler
Christoph Lau
10.1 Summary
283(1)
10.2 Definitions and Basics of Environmental Processes
284(4)
10.2.1 Volatilization
284(1)
10.2.2 Sorptive and Desorptive Processes
285(2)
10.2.3 Bioconcentration
287(1)
10.3 Biological Degradation
288(17)
10.3.1 General Considerations
288(1)
10.3.2 Environmental Factors Influencing Biodegradation Rates
289(1)
10.3.3 Chemical Factors Influencing Biodegradation Rates
290(1)
10.3.4 General Rules for Degradability of Chlorinated Organics
290(1)
10.3.5 Aerobic Environments and Aerobic Respiration
291(6)
10.3.6 Anaerobic Environments and Anaerobic Respiration
297(6)
10.3.7 Sequential Biodegradation
303(1)
10.3.8 Degradation Under Environmental Conditions
304(1)
10.4 Nonbiological Degradation Processes
305(3)
10.4.1 Photochemical Degradation
305(2)
10.4.2 Chemical Degradation
307(1)
10.4.3 Hydrolysis
307(1)
10.4.4 Oxidation
308(1)
10.5 References
308(10)
11 Environmental Fate of Chlorinated Organics
318(53)
Heidelore Fiedler
Christoph Lau
11.1 Summary
318(1)
11.2 Introduction
318(2)
11.3 Classification of Chlorinated Organics
320(9)
11.3.1 Naturally Occurring Chlorinated Organic Compounds
320(2)
11.3.2 Chlorinated Compounds of Anthropogenic Origin
322(7)
11.4 Short-Chain Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
329(4)
11.4.1 Chemical Identity and Environmental Levels
329(1)
11.4.2 Chemical and Toxicological Properties
330(1)
11.4.3 Ecotoxicological Relevance
331(1)
11.4.4 Biological Degradation
332(1)
11.4.5 Photooxidation of Perchloroethane and Trichloroacetyl Chloride
333(1)
11.5 Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans (PCDD PCDF)
333(9)
11.5.1 Introduction
333(1)
11.5.2 Toxicity of PCDD PCDF
334(1)
11.5.3 Environmental Behavior
335(4)
11.5.4 National Inventories
339(1)
11.5.5 National Mass Balances
340(1)
11.5.6 Reservoirs
341(1)
11.6 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB)
342(6)
11.6.1 Introduction
342(1)
11.6.2 Legal Situation
343(1)
11.6.3 PCB Levels in the Environment
343(2)
11.6.4 Environmental Fate of PCB
345(2)
11.6.5 Toxicity of PCB
347(1)
11.7 Global Distribution--Long-Range Transport
348(3)
11.8 Organochlorine Substances in the Marine Environment
351(5)
11.8.1 Introduction
351(1)
11.8.2 Criteria Important for an Environmental Impact Assessment
352(2)
11.8.3 Generation of Priority Compounds
354(2)
11.9 Environmental Risk Assessment for Chlorinated Pesticides
356(6)
11.9.1 General Aspects
356(3)
11.9.2 Toxicity Ranking System for Chlorinated Pesticides
359(1)
11.9.3 Results
359(2)
11.9.4 Discussion
361(1)
11.10 References
362(9)
12 Ecochemistry of Toxaphene
371(42)
Mehmet Coelhan
Harun Parlar
12.1 Summary
371(1)
12.2 Introduction
372(1)
12.3 Composition of Toxaphene
372(2)
12.4 Isolation and Identification of Environmentally Relevant Toxaphene Components
374(2)
12.5 Occurrence of Toxaphene in the Environment
376(19)
12.5.1 Plants
376(1)
12.5.2 Animals
377(16)
12.5.3 Soil
393(1)
12.5.4 Air
393(1)
12.5.5 Water and Sediments
394(1)
12.6 Photodegradation of Toxaphene Components
395(1)
12.7 Degradation of Toxaphene Components in Soil
396(1)
12.8 Degradation of Toxaphene by Animals
397(5)
12.9 Degradation of Toxaphene by Plants
402(1)
12.10 Toxicity, Mutagenicity, and Cancerogenicity of Toxaphene
403(2)
12.11 Structure-Degradability Relationship of Toxaphene Components
405(1)
12.12 References
405(8)
13 Specimen Banking as an Environmental Surveillance Tool
413(26)
Antonius Kettrup
Petra Marth
13.1 Summary
413(1)
13.2 Introduction
413(2)
13.3 Bioindicators
415(1)
13.4 Idea of Environmental Specimen Banking
416(2)
13.5 Realization
418(14)
13.5.1 Sampling
418(4)
13.5.2 Analytical Sample Characterization
422(10)
13.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
432(2)
13.7 References
434(5)
PART 3 BIOACCUMULATION AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS 439(226)
14 Bioaccumulation of Chemicals by Aquatic Organisms
439(12)
Des W. Connell
14.1 Summary
439(1)
14.2 Introduction
440(1)
14.3 Significance of Biomagnification in Aquatic Systems
441(1)
14.4 Influence of Type of Compound on Bioconcentration
441(1)
14.5 The Mechanism of Bioconcentration and Biomagnification
442(1)
14.6 Influence of Some Biological Characteristics on Bioconcentration
443(1)
14.7 Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships for Bioconcentration
444(1)
14.8 Kinetics of Bioconcentration
445(4)
14.9 Bioaccumulation in the Natural Environment
449(1)
14.10 Conclusions
449(1)
14.11 References
450(1)
15 Metal Bioaccumulation in Freshwater Systems: Experimental Study of the Actions and Interactions Between Abiotic and Contamination Factors
451(33)
Alain Boudou
Beatrice Inza
Sylviane Lamaire-Gony
Regine Maury-Brachet
Muriel Odin
Francis Ribeyre
15.1 Summary
451(1)
15.2 Introduction
452(4)
15.3 Methodological Bases
456(7)
15.4 Examples of Results
463(8)
15.5 Effects of Abiotic Factors and Interactions Between These Factors on Mercury Bioaccumulation in Burrowing Mayfly Nymphs
471(7)
15.6 Conclusion
478(1)
15.7 References
478(6)
16 Process-Oriented Descriptions of Toxic Effects
484(37)
Sebastiaan A. L. M. Kooijman
16.1 Summary
484(1)
16.2 Introduction
484(3)
16.2.1 Ecotoxicology
484(1)
16.2.2 Risk Assessment
485(2)
16.3 Standard Descriptions
487(4)
16.3.1 LC(50) and Gradient
487(1)
16.3.2 Problems
488(1)
16.3.3 EC(50)
489(1)
16.3.4 Conclusion
490(1)
16.4 Dynamic Energy Budgets
491(4)
16.5 Toxicokinetics
495(2)
16.6 Effects
497(9)
16.6.1 Effects on Survival
498(3)
16.6.2 Effects on Growth and Reproduction
501(5)
16.7 Effects on Population Dynamics
506(3)
16.8 Toxicity Patterns
509(6)
16.8.1 Temperature
510(1)
16.8.2 pH
510(1)
16.8.3 Body Size and Reserves
510(1)
16.8.4 Solubility in Fat
511(2)
16.8.5 Classes of Compounds
513(1)
16.8.6 Sensitivity Among Species
514(1)
16.9 Conclusions and Perspectives
515(1)
16.10 References
516(5)
17 Cellular Response Profile to Chemical Stress
521(50)
Helmut Segner
Thomas Braunbeck
17.1 Summary
521(1)
17.2 Introduction
522(2)
17.3 Interaction with Membrane Processes
524(5)
17.4 Intracellular Fate of Chemicals
529(5)
17.5 Intracellular Receptors
534(4)
17.6 Interaction with Nuclear Structures and Functions
538(2)
17.7 Protective Molecules and Processes
540(6)
17.8 Cell Injury and Death
546(6)
17.9 Function of Cell Toxicology in Ecotoxicology
552(3)
17.10 References
555(16)
18 Long-Term Effects of Chemicals in Aquatic Organisms
571(16)
Horst Peter
Wolfgang Heger
18.1 Summary
572(1)
18.2 Introduction
572(1)
18.3 Prediction of Prolonged and Long-Term Effects from LC EC(50) Time Curves
573(1)
18.4 Predictability of Prolonged and Long- Term No Effect Concentrations from Acute Toxicity Data
574(2)
18.5 Evaluation of Data from Pesticide Registrations and Notifications According to the Chemicals Act
576(3)
18.6 Bioaccumulation and Prolonged Toxicity
579(2)
18.7 Prolonged and Chronic Tests for Aquatic Organisms
581(3)
18.7.1 NOEC and EC(x)
581(1)
18.7.2 Algal Inhibition Test (92 69 EWG, Part C.3)
582(1)
18.7.3 Daphnia, Acute Immobilization Test and Reproduction Test Part II--Reproduction Test Duration of at Least 14 Days, OECD 202, Part II
582(1)
18.7.4 Fish, Prolonged Toxicity Test: 14-Day Study, OECD 204
582(1)
18.7.5 Fish, Juvenile Growth Test--28 Days, OECD, Draft
583(1)
18.7.6 Fish, Early-Life Stage Toxicity Test, OECD 210
583(1)
18.7.7 Fish, Toxicity Test on Egg and Sac Fry Stages, OECD, Draft
583(1)
18.7.8 Chronic Toxicity Test for Fish
584(1)
18.8 Conclusions
584(1)
18.9 References
585(2)
19 Effects of Heavy Metals in Plants at the Cellular and Organismic Level
587(34)
Wilfried H. O. Ernst
19.1 Summary
587(1)
19.2 Introduction
588(1)
19.3 Metal Availability
589(1)
19.4 Sensitivity and Resistance to Heavy Metals
590(10)
19.4.1 Sensitivity and Resistance at the Cellular Level
591(1)
19.4.2 The Plasma Membrane
592(1)
19.4.3 The Cytosol
593(3)
19.4.4 Protein Metabolism
596(1)
19.4.5 Cell Organelles
597(3)
19.5 Reaction of Plant Parts to a Surplus of Heavy Metals
600(10)
19.5.1 Seeds and Germination
601(1)
19.5.2 Seedling Stage
601(1)
19.5.3 Root Growth and Metal Exposure
602(4)
19.5.4 Shoot Growth and Leaf Response to a Surplus of Metals
606(3)
19.5.5 Reproductive Growth and Metal Exposure
609(1)
19.6 The Individual
610(2)
19.7 Conclusions
612(1)
19.8 References
613(8)
20 Assessment of Ecotoxicity at the Population Level using Demographic Parameters
621(24)
Nico M. van Straalen
Jan E. Kammenga
20.1 Summary
621(1)
20.2 Introduction
622(2)
20.3 Demographic Techniques
624(5)
20.4 Population Performance Indices in Ecotoxicological Studies
629(4)
20.5 Sensitivity Analysis Based on Life-History Responses to Toxicants
633(3)
20.6 Trade-off Relationships among Demographic Characters
636(2)
20.7 Conclusions
638(1)
20.8 References
639(6)
21 Effects of Pollutants on Soil Invertebrates: Links between Levels
645(20)
Jason M. Weeks
21.1 Summary
645(1)
21.2 Introduction
646(1)
21.3 Why Soil Invertebrates?
646(1)
21.4 Structural and Functional Characteristics Required to Evaluate the Condition of Ecosystems
647(1)
21.5 Levels of Organization for Evaluating the Effects of Chemicals
648(1)
21.6 The Value of Mesocosm Experiments as Links to Real Ecosystems
649(2)
21.7 Biomarkers: Advantages and Disadvantages
651(3)
21.8 Biomarkers and Links to Ecological Effects: Laboratory Versus Field Studies
654(2)
21.9 An Example of the Use of Soil Invertebrate Biomarkers to Assess Ecological Damage to a Forest System
656(2)
21.10 Diagnosis and Establishment of a Link to Causation
658(1)
21.11 References
659(6)
PART 4 CONTRIBUTIONS TO AN ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT 665(204)
22 Ecotoxic Modes of Action of Chemical Substances
665(86)
Gerrit Schuurmann
22.1 Summary
666(1)
22.2 Introduction
666(3)
22.2.1 Two Branches of Ecotoxicology
667(1)
22.2.2 Outline of Subsequent Sections
668(1)
22.3 Cause-Effect Relationships in the Field
669(4)
22.3.1 DDT
670(1)
22.3.2 Acid Rain
671(1)
22.3.3 Chlorofluorocarbons
672(1)
22.4 Biochemical Background and Modes of Toxic Action
673(8)
22.4.1 Biotransformation
673(4)
22.4.2 Classification of Chemical Toxicity
677(4)
22.5 Compound Properties and Molecular Descriptors
681(10)
22.5.1 Octanol Water Partition Coefficient
681(1)
22.5.2 Dissociation Constant in Aqueous Solution
682(1)
22.5.3 Hammett Equation
683(1)
22.5.4 Ground-State Global Molecular Reactivity
684(2)
22.5.5 Ground-State Local Molecular Reactivity
686(4)
22.5.6 Transition-State Theory
690(1)
22.6 Molecular Mode-of-Action Analysis of Compound Toxicity
691(44)
22.6.1 Aromatic Phosphorothionates
692(11)
22.6.2 Chlorophenols and Nitrophenols
703(14)
22.6.3 Alkylphenol Ethoxylate Surfactants
717(6)
22.6.4 Triorganotins and other Organic Heavy Metals
723(6)
22.6.5 Unsaturated Alcohols
729(6)
22.7 Concluding Remarks
735(1)
22.8 References
736(15)
23 Endpoints and Thresholds in Ecotoxicology
751(18)
John Cairns, Jr.
23.1 Summary
751(1)
23.2 The Ecological Paradigm Shift
752(1)
23.3 Ecotoxicology and Sustainable Use of the Planet
752(2)
23.4 Ecotoxicology and Ecosystem Health
754(4)
23.5 Concepts of Ecosystem Health: Utilitarian vs Philosophical
758(2)
23.6 Ecotoxicology at the Landscape Level
760(1)
23.7 Obstacles to the Development of Landscape Ecotoxicology
761(1)
23.8 Balancing our Technological and Ecological Life Support System
762(3)
23.9 Thresholds, Process Endpoints, and Ecosystem Service Delivery
765(1)
23.10 References
765(4)
24 Modeling Ecological Risks of Pesticides: A Review of Available Approaches
769(30)
Lawrence W. Barnthouse
24.1 Summary
769(1)
24.2 Introduction
770(5)
24.2.1 Endpoints
772(1)
24.2.2 Model Evaluation Criteria
772(1)
24.2.3 Past Reviews
773(2)
24.3 Description of Modeling Approaches
775(13)
24.3.1 Age Stage-Structured Models
775(2)
24.3.2 Individual-Based Models
777(3)
24.3.3 Metapopulation Models
780(5)
24.3.4 Spatially Explicit Models
785(3)
24.4 Integration of Ecological Models into the New Paradigm
788(5)
24.4.1 Types of Model Applications
789(2)
24.4.2 State of Development of Modeling Approaches
791(2)
24.5 Conclusions and Recommendations
793(1)
24.6 References
794(5)
25 Current and Future Test Strategies in Terrestrial Ecotoxicology
799(14)
Reinhard Debus
25.1 Summary
799(1)
25.2 Terrestrial Ecotoxicology
800(1)
25.3 Evaluation of Substances
801(3)
25.4 Substance-Related Evaluation and Limiting Values for Soils
804(2)
25.5 Evaluation of Soil Quality
806(5)
25.6 References
811(2)
26 Alternative Assays for Routine Toxicity Assessments: A Review
813(28)
Colin Janssen
26.1 Summary
813(1)
26.2 Introduction
814(1)
26.3 Microbial Test Systems
815(7)
26.3.1 General
815(1)
26.3.2 Microbiotests
816(6)
26.4 Algal Toxicity Tests
822(2)
26.4.1 General
822(1)
26.4.2 Microbiotests
823(1)
26.5 Invertebrates
824(3)
26.5.1 General
824(1)
26.5.2 Microbiotests
825(2)
26.6 The Use of Alternative Toxicity Tests in a Battery of Screening Assays
827(3)
26.7 Conclusions and Research Perspectives
830(1)
26.8 References
831(10)
27 Legislative Perspective in Ecological Risk Assessment
841(28)
Jan Ahlers
Robert Diderich
27.1 Summary
841(1)
27.2 Introduction
842(1)
27.3 Risk Assessment within the EU
843(18)
27.3.1 Environmental Exposure Assessment
844(5)
27.3.2 Environmental Effects Assessment
849(4)
27.3.3 Risk Characterization
853(3)
27.3.4 Example of a Risk Assessment of a Chemical Substance According to the EU Scheme
856(5)
27.3.5 Comparison with Other Countries
861(1)
27.4 Discussion and Perspectives
861(6)
27.4.1 Availability of Data
862(2)
27.4.2 Assessment Scheme for the Aquatic Compartment
864(1)
27.4.3 Assessment Scheme for the Terrestrial Compartment
865(1)
27.4.4 Influence of Persistence and Bioaccumulation Potential
865(2)
27.5 References
867(2)
Index 869

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