Preface | p. xiv |
Supplements | p. xvii |
Introduction | p. 1 |
The Biocultural Approach | p. 2 |
What Is Anthropology? | p. 4 |
Cultural Anthropology | p. 4 |
Linguistic Anthropology | p. 5 |
Physical Anthropology | p. 6 |
Archaeology | p. 9 |
The Scientific Method | p. 14 |
The Anthropological Perspective | p. 15 |
Summary | p. 16 |
Questions for Review | p. 17 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 17 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 18 |
Photo Essay: Careers in Physical Anthropology and Archaeology | p. 19 |
The Development of Evolutionary Theory | p. 23 |
Introduction | p. 24 |
A Brief History of Evolutionary Thought | p. 24 |
The Scientific Revolution | p. 25 |
The Path to Natural Selection | p. 26 |
Natural Selection | p. 33 |
Natural Selection in Action | p. 34 |
Constraints on Nineteenth-Century Evolutionary Theory | p. 36 |
Opposition to Evolution | p. 36 |
Summary | p. 38 |
Questions for Review | p. 38 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 39 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 39 |
The Inheritance of Biological Traits | p. 41 |
Introduction | p. 42 |
The Cell | p. 42 |
DNA Structure and Function | p. 43 |
DNA Replication | p. 44 |
Protein Synthesis | p. 45 |
Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis | p. 47 |
Mitosis | p. 49 |
Meiosis | p. 50 |
The Genetic Principles Discovered by Mendel | p. 52 |
Mendel's Principle of Segregation | p. 52 |
Dominance and Recessiveness | p. 53 |
Mendel's Principle of Independent Assortment | p. 55 |
Mendelian Inheritance in Humans | p. 56 |
Misconceptions Regarding Dominance and Recessiveness | p. 58 |
Polygenic Inheritance | p. 58 |
Genetic and Environmental Factors | p. 60 |
Mitochondrial Inheritance | p. 61 |
New Frontiers | p. 61 |
Summary | p. 63 |
Questions for Review | p. 64 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 64 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 65 |
Issue: Genetic Screening: A Double-Edged Sword? | p. 66 |
Microevolution in Modern Human Populations | p. 69 |
Introduction | p. 70 |
The Modern Theory of Evolution | p. 70 |
The Definition of Evolution | p. 70 |
Population Genetics | p. 71 |
Mutation | p. 72 |
Gene Flow | p. 72 |
Genetic Drift | p. 73 |
Natural Selection | p. 74 |
Human Biocultural Evolution | p. 77 |
Human Polymorphisms | p. 78 |
Simple Polymorphisms | p. 78 |
Polymorphisms at the DNA Level | p. 81 |
Patterns of Human Population Diversity | p. 82 |
Summary | p. 83 |
Questions for Review | p. 84 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 84 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 84 |
Human Variation and Adaptation | p. 86 |
Introduction | p. 87 |
Historical Views of Human Variation | p. 87 |
The Concept of Race | p. 90 |
Digging Deeper: Racial Purity: A False and Dangerous Ideology | p. 92 |
Intelligence | p. 94 |
The Adaptive Significance of Human Variation | p. 95 |
Solar Radiation, Vitamin D, and Skin Color | p. 95 |
The Thermal Environment | p. 97 |
High Altitude | p. 100 |
Infectious Disease | p. 101 |
Fundamentals of Growth and Development | p. 104 |
Stature | p. 104 |
Brain Growth | p. 105 |
Nutritional Effects on Growth and Development | p. 106 |
Basic Nutrients for Growth and Development | p. 106 |
Evolution of Nutritional Needs | p. 107 |
Genetics | p. 109 |
Hormones | p. 109 |
Environmental Factors | p. 110 |
Summary | p. 110 |
Questions for Review | p. 111 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 111 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 112 |
Photo Essay: Paleopathology: Diseases and Injuries of Bone | p. 113 |
An Overview of the Living Primates | p. 119 |
Introduction | p. 120 |
Primates as Mammals | p. 120 |
Characteristics of Primates | p. 120 |
Primate Adaptations | p. 124 |
Evolutionary Factors | p. 124 |
Geographical Distribution and Habitats | p. 124 |
Diet and Teeth | p. 125 |
Locomotion | p. 128 |
A Survey of the Living Primates | p. 130 |
Primate Taxonomy | p. 130 |
Prosimians (Lemurs and Lorises) | p. 132 |
Tarsiers | p. 134 |
Anthropoids (Monkeys, Apes, and Humans) | p. 134 |
Hominoids (Apes and Humans) | p. 138 |
Humans | p. 143 |
Endangered Primates | p. 144 |
Summary | p. 146 |
Questions for Review | p. 146 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 146 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 147 |
Primate Behavior | p. 148 |
Introduction | p. 149 |
The Importance of Primate Studies | p. 149 |
The Evolution of Behavior | p. 149 |
Nonhuman Primate Social Behavior | p. 152 |
Dominance | p. 153 |
Communication | p. 153 |
Aggression | p. 155 |
Affiliative Behaviors | p. 156 |
Reproduction and Reproductive Strategies | p. 158 |
Patterns of Reproduction | p. 158 |
Reproductive Strategies | p. 159 |
Mothers and Infants | p. 160 |
Nonhuman Primate Cultural Behavior | p. 162 |
Primate Cognitive Abilities | p. 164 |
The Primate Continuum | p. 168 |
Summary | p. 169 |
Questions for Review | p. 169 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 170 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 171 |
Issue: Primates in Biomedical Research: Ethics and Concerns | p. 172 |
Mammalian/Primate Evolutionary History | p. 175 |
Introduction | p. 176 |
The Human Place in the Organic World | p. 176 |
Principles of Classification | p. 176 |
Constructing Classifications and Interpreting Evolutionary Relationships | p. 178 |
Vertebrate Evolutionary History: A Brief Summary | p. 182 |
Mammalian Evolution | p. 185 |
Major Mammalian Groups | p. 187 |
Early Primate Evolution | p. 188 |
Digging Deeper: Telling It Like It Isn't | p. 189 |
Miocene Fossil Hominoids | p. 191 |
Processes of Macroevolution | p. 193 |
Adaptive Radiation | p. 193 |
Generalized and Specialized Characteristics | p. 194 |
Modes of Evolutionary Change | p. 195 |
The Meaning of Genus and Species | p. 197 |
Summary | p. 198 |
Questions for Review | p. 199 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 199 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 199 |
Paleoanthropology: Reconstructing Early Hominid Behavior and Ecology | p. 201 |
Introduction | p. 202 |
Definition of Hominid | p. 202 |
Biocultural Evolution: The Human Capacity for Culture | p. 202 |
The Strategy of Paleoanthropology | p. 204 |
Paleoanthropology in Action--Olduvai Gorge | p. 206 |
Dating Methods | p. 208 |
Digging Deeper: Mary Leakey (1913-1996) | p. 209 |
Digging Deeper: Discovery of Zinjanthropus, July 17, 1959 | p. 210 |
Excavations at Olduvai | p. 210 |
Environmental Explanations for Hominid Origins | p. 213 |
Changing Environments and Later Hominid Diversifications | p. 214 |
Why Did Hominids Become Bipedal? | p. 215 |
Summary | p. 218 |
Questions for Review | p. 218 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 219 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 219 |
Issue: Who Was Doing What at the Olduvai Sites? | p. 220 |
Hominid Origins | p. 222 |
Introduction | p. 223 |
The Bipedal Adaptation | p. 223 |
Box 10-1: Major Features of Hominid Bipedalism | p. 226 |
Early Hominids in the Plio-Pleistocene | p. 227 |
The East African Rift Valley | p. 228 |
The Earliest East African Hominids | p. 228 |
Earliest Traces | p. 228 |
Ardipithecus from Aramis (Ethiopia) | p. 228 |
Australopithecus from East Africa | p. 231 |
Australopithecus afarensis from Laetoli and Hadar | p. 232 |
Digging Deeper: Cranial Capacity | p. 234 |
Later East African Australopithecine Finds | p. 235 |
Australopithecines from Olduvai and Lake Turkana | p. 236 |
Early Homo | p. 237 |
Central Africa | p. 238 |
South African Sites | p. 240 |
Earliest Discoveries | p. 240 |
Further Discoveries of South African Hominids | p. 241 |
Review of Hominids from South Africa | p. 242 |
Geology and Dating Problems in South Africa | p. 245 |
Interpretations: What Does It All Mean? | p. 247 |
Continuing Uncertainties--Taxonomic Issues | p. 250 |
Putting It All Together | p. 252 |
Interpreting the Interpretations | p. 253 |
Summary | p. 254 |
Questions for Review | p. 255 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 256 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 256 |
Homo erectus and Contemporaries | p. 257 |
Introduction | p. 258 |
Homo erectus: Terminology and Geographical Distribution | p. 258 |
The Pleistocene (1.8 m.y.a.-10,000 y.a.) | p. 262 |
The Morphology of Homo erectus | p. 262 |
Brain Size | p. 262 |
Body Size | p. 263 |
Cranial Shape | p. 263 |
Dentition | p. 263 |
Historical Overview of Homo erectus Discoveries | p. 264 |
Java | p. 265 |
Homo erectus from Java | p. 266 |
Peking (Beijing) | p. 266 |
Zhoukoudian Homo erectus | p. 267 |
Digging Deeper: The Control of Fire | p. 270 |
Other Chinese Sites | p. 270 |
East Africa | p. 273 |
Digging Deeper: The Nariokotome Skeleton--A Boy for All Seasons | p. 274 |
Summary of East African H. erectus | p. 275 |
South Africa | p. 275 |
North Africa | p. 275 |
Europe | p. 275 |
Technological and Population Trends in the Middle Pleistocene | p. 276 |
Technological Trends | p. 276 |
Population Trends | p. 278 |
Summary | p. 279 |
Questions for Review | p. 280 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 280 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 280 |
Photo Essay: Paleoanthropology | p. 282 |
Neandertals and Other Archaic Homo sapiens | p. 287 |
Introduction | p. 288 |
Early Archaic H. sapiens | p. 288 |
Africa | p. 289 |
Asia | p. 289 |
Europe | p. 292 |
A Review of Middle Pleistocene Evolution (circa 400,000-125,000 y.a.) | p. 295 |
Middle Pleistocene Culture | p. 295 |
Neandertals: Late Archaic H. sapiens (130,000-35,000 y.a.) | p. 297 |
France and Spain | p. 299 |
Central Europe | p. 304 |
Western Asia | p. 305 |
Central Asia | p. 306 |
Culture of Neandertals | p. 306 |
Technology | p. 307 |
Settlements | p. 307 |
Subsistence | p. 307 |
Symbolic Behavior | p. 308 |
Burials | p. 309 |
Genetic Evidence | p. 310 |
Evolutionary Trends in the Genus Homo | p. 311 |
Taxonomic Issues | p. 312 |
Summary | p. 314 |
Questions for Review | p. 314 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 315 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 315 |
Homo sapiens sapiens | p. 316 |
Introduction | p. 317 |
The Origin and Dispersal of Homo sapiens sapiens (Anatomically Modern Human Beings) | p. 317 |
The Complete Replacement Model (Recent African Evolution) | p. 318 |
The Partial Replacement Model | p. 320 |
The Regional Continuity Model (Multiregional Evolution) | p. 320 |
The Earliest Homo sapiens sapiens Discoveries | p. 320 |
Africa | p. 321 |
The Near East | p. 321 |
Central Europe | p. 323 |
Digging Deeper: The Garden of Eden Hypothesis | p. 324 |
Western Europe | p. 325 |
Asia | p. 327 |
Australia | p. 328 |
Technology and Art in the Upper Paleolithic | p. 328 |
Europe | p. 328 |
Africa | p. 336 |
Summary of Upper Paleolithic Culture | p. 337 |
Summary | p. 337 |
Questions for Review | p. 338 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 338 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 338 |
Issue: The Evolution of Language | p. 340 |
Understanding the Past: Archaeological Approaches | p. 342 |
Introduction | p. 343 |
Archaeology and the Study of Prehistory | p. 343 |
Archaeological Research Objectives | p. 344 |
Digging Deeper: Mechanisms of Cultural Variation and Change | p. 345 |
Piecing Together the Past | p. 346 |
Artifacts and Contexts | p. 346 |
Ethnoarchaeology and Ethnographic Analogy | p. 347 |
Digging Deeper: Reconstructing Cultural Behavior from Garbage | p. 348 |
Experimental Archaeology | p. 349 |
Dating Prehistory | p. 352 |
Relative Dating | p. 352 |
Chronometric Dating | p. 354 |
Digging Deeper: Chronometric Dating Estimates | p. 357 |
The Archaeological Research Project | p. 359 |
Research Archaeology and Cultural Resource Management | p. 359 |
Designing a Research Program | p. 360 |
Gathering the Data | p. 360 |
Analyzing the Data | p. 366 |
Documenting the Results | p. 369 |
Summary | p. 369 |
Questions for Review | p. 370 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 370 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 371 |
Holocene Hunters and Gatherers | p. 372 |
Introduction | p. 373 |
In Pursuit of the Earliest Americans | p. 374 |
Establishing the Old World Origins of New World Peoples | p. 375 |
Digging Deeper: NAGPRA and American Archaeology | p. 378 |
Evaluating Archaeological Traces of the Earliest Americans | p. 380 |
Paleo-Indians in the Americas | p. 383 |
Paleo-Indian Lifeways | p. 385 |
Pleistocene Extinctions | p. 387 |
Middle Stone Age Hunter-Fisher-Gatherers | p. 388 |
Early Holocene Environments | p. 388 |
Cultural Adjustment to Environmental Change | p. 389 |
Case Studies of Middle Stone Age Cultures | p. 391 |
Mesolithic Foragers and Collectors of Northern Europe | p. 391 |
Epipaleolithic Foragers and Collectors of the Near East | p. 392 |
Archaic Hunters and Gatherers of North America | p. 393 |
Cultural Ecology of Foraging and Food Collecting | p. 395 |
Summary | p. 396 |
Questions for Review | p. 397 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 398 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 398 |
Photo Essay: Archaeology: Methods and Practice | p. 399 |
Food Production: A Biocultural Revolution | p. 409 |
Introduction | p. 410 |
The Neolithic Revolution | p. 411 |
Why and How Did Domestication and Agriculture Occur? | p. 411 |
Defining Agriculture and Domestication | p. 412 |
Environmental Explanations | p. 412 |
Demographic Explanations | p. 413 |
Ecological Explanations | p. 414 |
From Collecting to Cultivating | p. 416 |
Archaeological Evidence for Domestication and Agriculture | p. 416 |
Digging Deeper: What's to Eat? | p. 417 |
Plants | p. 418 |
Digging Deeper: What Archaeologists Can Learn from Dead Plants | p. 419 |
Nonhuman Animals | p. 420 |
Agricultural Societies of the Old World | p. 422 |
Near Eastern Farmers | p. 422 |
African Farmers | p. 424 |
Asian Farmers | p. 425 |
European Farmers | p. 426 |
Early Farmers in the Americas | p. 429 |
New World Domesticates | p. 430 |
Mexican Farmers | p. 430 |
South American Farmers | p. 431 |
Farmers of the Southwestern United States | p. 433 |
Farmers of Eastern North America | p. 436 |
Biocultural Consequences of Food Production | p. 439 |
Increased Population Density and Permanent Settlements | p. 439 |
New Technologies | p. 439 |
New Economic and Social Relations | p. 440 |
Environmental Changes | p. 440 |
Diminished Diversity | p. 441 |
Role of Science and Religion | p. 441 |
Cultural Competition and Change | p. 442 |
Diet and Health | p. 442 |
Summary | p. 444 |
Questions for Review | p. 445 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 445 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 445 |
The First Civilizations | p. 447 |
Introduction | p. 448 |
Considering Civilization | p. 448 |
Why Did Civilizations Form? | p. 448 |
Functionalist Explanations | p. 452 |
Systems Approach | p. 453 |
Cities and Civilizations | p. 454 |
Roots of Urbanism | p. 454 |
Ancient Civilizations of the Old World | p. 457 |
Mesopotamia | p. 457 |
Egypt | p. 460 |
Digging Deeper: Discovering the Mummy's Secrets | p. 464 |
The Indus Valley | p. 464 |
Northern China | p. 467 |
The Mediterranean Realm | p. 469 |
Summary | p. 473 |
Questions for Review | p. 474 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 474 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 475 |
Issue: Who Invented Writing? | p. 476 |
New World Civilizations | p. 478 |
Introduction | p. 479 |
Lowland Mesoamerica | p. 481 |
The Olmec | p. 481 |
The Classic Maya | p. 483 |
Digging Deeper: How to Count and Measure Time--The Maya Way | p. 487 |
Highland Mexico | p. 488 |
Teotihuacan | p. 488 |
The Toltecs and the Postclassic Maya | p. 490 |
The Aztecs | p. 491 |
Peru | p. 492 |
Fishing, Farming, and the Rise of Civilization | p. 492 |
The Chavin Phenomenon | p. 494 |
Early Cities | p. 495 |
From Kingdoms to Empires | p. 497 |
The Inka | p. 498 |
European Conquest of the New World | p. 499 |
Summary | p. 501 |
Questions for Review | p. 502 |
Suggested Further Reading | p. 502 |
Resources on the Internet | p. 503 |
Epilogue: Our Biocultural Legacy | p. 504 |
Atlas of Primate Skeletal Anatomy | p. 507 |
Population Genetics | p. 515 |
Glossary | p. 518 |
Bibliography | p. 528 |
Photo Credits | p. 545 |
Index | p. 547 |
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