Teaching Students With Learning Problems

by Mercer, Cecil D.; Mercer, Ann R.

• ISBN13: 9780131128071
• ISBN10: 0131128078
• Edition: 7th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2005-01-01
• Publisher: Pearson College Div

Summary

This top-selling practical, research-based text contains the resources teachers need to make informed decisions concerning their students with learning or behavior problems, making it the most useful methods text on the market. Prided for its unique and comprehensive coverage of classroom assessment and methods for the content areas, it assists teachers in finding effective practices to facilitate instruction of students with learning problems.

Table of Contents

PART I FOUNDATIONS OF TEACHING	1	(206)
Creating Responsive Learning Environments	2	(38)
Students at Risk for School Failure	3	(2)
Characteristics of Students at Risk for School Failure	4	(1)
Individualized Educational-Programs	5	(8)
Participants in IEP Meetings	9	(1)
Components of an IEP	9	(3)
Using the IEP	12	(1)
Educational Services and Related Practices	13	(4)
Least Restrictive Environment	13	(2)
The General Education Class	15	(1)
Reintegration of Students	16	(1)
Movement from Mainstreaming to Inclusion	17	(6)
The Regular Education Initiative	17	(1)
The Inclusion Movement	18	(1)
Rationale for Inclusion	19	(1)
Rationale for Continuum of Alternative Placements	19	(1)
Research on the Inclusion and Continuum of Alternative Placements Issue	20	(2)
Perspective on the Movement from Mainstreaming to Inclusion	22	(1)
Program Factors and Least Restrictive Environment	23	(10)
Teachers Teaching Teachers	24	(5)
The Special Education or At-Risk Teacher	29	(1)
Teacher-Parent Collaboration	30	(3)
Instructional Variables Related to Student Learning	33	(7)
Focus on Time for Learning	33	(1)
Ensure High Rates of Student Success	34	(2)
Provide Positive and Supportive Learning Environments	36	(1)
Plan and Maintain a Motivational Environment	37	(3)
Planning and Organizing Instruction	40	(43)
Physical Arrangements	41	(3)
Arrangement of Students	41	(1)
Arrangement of Materials	42	(1)
Arrangement of Special Areas and Centers	42	(1)
General Considerations	42	(2)
Instructional Arrangements	44	(30)
Large-Group Instruction	46	(1)
Small-Group Instruction	47	(2)
One Student with Teacher	49	(1)
Students Teaching Students: Peer Tutoring	50	(5)
Students Teaching Students: Classwide Peer Tutoring	55	(3)
Students Teaching Students: Cooperative Learning	58	(1)
Material with Student: Seatwork Activities	59	(2)
Material with Student: Self-Correcting Materials	61	(4)
Material with Student: Instructional Games	65	(2)
Material with Student: Technological Tools	67	(4)
Material with Student: Homework	71	(3)
Scheduling	74	(4)
General Scheduling Techniques	74	(1)
Scheduling at the Elementary Level	75	(1)
Scheduling at the Secondary Level	76	(1)
Scheduling in the Resource Room	77	(1)
Classroom Equipment	78	(4)
Tape Recorder	78	(1)
Overhead Projector	79	(1)
Small-Item Materials	80	(2)
Material Organization System	82	(1)
Assessing Students for Instruction	83	(44)
Individualized Programming: A Continuous Process of Assessment and Teaching	84	(5)
Step I: Assess to Identify Target Skill or Content	84	(4)
Step II: Determine Factors Likely to Facilitate Learning	88	(1)
Step III: Plan Instruction	88	(1)
Step IV: Begin Daily Data-Managed Instruction	88	(1)
Stages of Learning	89	(2)
Acquisition Stage	90	(1)
Proficiency Stage	90	(1)
Maintenance Stage	90	(1)
Generalization Stage	90	(1)
Adaption Stage	90	(1)
Commentary on Learning Stages	90	(1)
Monitoring Student Performance for Determining What to Teach	91	(15)
Using Curriculum-Based Measurement to Establish Performance Standards	91	(2)
Individually Referenced Data Systems	93	(12)
Basic Guidelines for Monitoring Student Performance	105	(1)
Commentary on Data-Based Instruction	105	(1)
Assessment for Determining How to Teach	106	(4)
Formats for Determining How to Teach	106	(4)
Assessment Areas for Determining How to Teach	110	(8)
Expectation Factors	110	(2)
Stimulus Events	112	(3)
Response Factors	115	(1)
Subsequent Events	116	(1)
Analysis of the Student Learning Profile	116	(1)
Perspective on Assessing for How to Teach	116	(2)
Grading	118	(4)
Types of Alternative Grading	119	(1)
Guidelines for Developing an Effective Grading System	120	(2)
Testing Modifications	122	(2)
Record keeping	124	(3)
Composite Recordkeeping	124	(1)
Daily Recordkeeping	125	(2)
Teaching Students and Managing Instruction	127	(35)
A Continuum of Instructional Choices	128	(5)
Setting Demands of an Implicit Learning Environment	130	(1)
Research Base for a Continuum of Instructional Choices	131	(1)
Perspective on a Continuum of Instructional Choices	132	(1)
Systematic Teaching Steps	133	(10)
Opening the Lesson	133	(1)
Conducting an Interactive Presentation	134	(1)
Closing the Lesson	135	(1)
Using Continuous Teaching Components	136	(4)
Fostering Independence	140	(2)
Using Questions	142	(1)
Classroom Management	143	(4)
Classroom Tone	143	(1)
Classroom Rules	144	(3)
Engaging Students	147	(1)
Accommodating Students with Learning Problems in General Education Classrooms	147	(5)
Accommodations Involving Materials	147	(2)
Accommodations Involving Interactive Instruction	149	(1)
Accommodations Involving Student Performance	150	(2)
Selecting Curriculum	152	(2)
Material Selection Factors	152	(2)
Guidelines for Designing a Curriculum	154	(1)
Planning Units and Lessons	154	(4)
Planning Routines for Units	156	(2)
Lesson Planning Format	158	(1)
Postinstructional Activities	158	(2)
Teacher Reflection and Collaboration	158	(2)
Perspective on Instructional Components	160	(2)
Promoting Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Development	162	(45)
Assessment of Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Development	163	(13)
Commercial Observer-Rater Instruments	165	(2)
Commercial Measures of Adaptive Behavior	167	(2)
Self-Report Instruments	169	(3)
Sociometric Techniques	172	(2)
Naturalistic Observations	174	(2)
General Techniques for Promoting Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Development	176	(8)
Teach for Success	176	(2)
Focus on Promoting Proactivity	178	(1)
Promote Cooperation	178	(1)
Teach Self-Management	179	(1)
Model Target Behaviors and Attributes	179	(1)
Focus on Motivation through Behavior Modification	180	(3)
Activities for Increasing On-Task Behavior	183	(1)
Social Development Interventions	184	(2)
Social Skills Training	184	(2)
Social Development Activities	186	(1)
Instructional Games in Social Development	187	(1)
Commercial Social Development Programs	187	(1)
Emotional Development Interventions	188	(4)
Bibliotherapy	188	(1)
Attribution Retraining	189	(1)
Life-Space Interviewing	189	(1)
Reality Therapy	190	(1)
Techniques for Improving Mood States	191	(1)
Projective Techniques	191	(1)
Emotional Development Activities	192	(1)
Activities for Improving Reactions to Authority Figures	192	(1)
Activities for Enhancing Self-Concept	192	(1)
Instructional Games in Emotional Development	193	(1)
Commercial Emotional Development Programs	193	(1)
Behavioral Development Interventions	194	(9)
Positive Reinforcement Plan	195	(1)
Contingency Contracting	196	(1)
Token Systems	197	(1)
Extrinsic Reinforcement	198	(1)
Punishment	198	(5)
Techniques for Managing Surface Behaviors	203	(1)
Behavioral Development Activities	203	(1)
Instructional Games in Behavioral Development	204	(1)
Commercial Behavioral Development Programs	205	(1)
Perspective on Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Development	206	(1)
PART II TEACHING ACADEMIC SKILLS	207	(332)
Assessing and Teaching Language	208	(46)
Theories of Language Acquisition	210	(1)
Components of Language	210	(7)
Form: Phonology	211	(1)
Form: Morphology	212	(1)
Form: Syntax	213	(1)
Content: Semantics	214	(2)
Use: Pragmatics	216	(1)
Language Difficulties	217	(2)
Preschool and Kindergarten Students	217	(1)
Elementary Students	217	(1)
Secondary Students	218	(1)
Bilingual and Culturally Diverse Students	219	(2)
Assessment of Language Skills	221	(12)
Formal Language Assessment	222	(1)
Informal Language Assessment	223	(10)
Language Service Delivery Models	233	(3)
Pullout Therapy Model	233	(1)
Classroom-Based Language Models	234	(1)
Strategies-Based Model	235	(1)
Teaching Language Skills	236	(3)
Strategies for Increasing Language Comprehension	237	(1)
Strategies for Increasing Language Production	237	(1)
Imitation and Modeling Strategies	238	(1)
Parental Involvement	239	(1)
Language Activities	239	(3)
Instructional Games in Language	242	(4)
Self-Correcting Language Materials	246	(4)
Commercial Language Programs	250	(2)
Computer Software Programs in Language	252	(2)
Assessing Reading	254	(27)
The Reading Process	255	(5)
Adams's Model of the Reading Process	255	(2)
Chall's Reading Stages	257	(2)
Ehri's Phases of Sight Word Development	259	(1)
Emergent Literacy	260	(4)
Concepts about Print	262	(1)
Phonological Awareness	262	(2)
Assessment of Reading Skills	264	(17)
Formal Reading Assessment	264	(4)
Informal Reading Assessment	268	(13)
Teaching Reading	281	(59)
The Expanding Research Base in Reading	282	(1)
Components of Evidence-Based Reading Instruction	282	(10)
Phonological Awareness Training	283	(2)
Phonics Instruction	285	(1)
Fluency Instruction	286	(2)
Vocabulary Instruction	288	(2)
Comprehension Instruction	290	(2)
Core Reading Programs	292	(1)
Core Developmental Reading Approaches	293	(11)
Basal Reading Approach	293	(1)
Literature-Based Reading Approach	294	(1)
Whole Language Approach	295	(1)
Language Experience Approach	296	(2)
Phonics Approach	298	(5)
Linguistic Approach: Word Families and Onset-Rime	303	(1)
Remedial Reading Programs and Methods	304	(11)
Reading Mastery and Corrective Reading	304	(1)
Success for All	305	(1)
Reading Recovery	305	(1)
Multisensory Reading Method	306	(2)
Oral Reading Fluency Methods	308	(2)
Peer-Assisted Reading Method	310	(1)
High Interest--Low Vocabulary Method	311	(1)
Functional Reading	311	(4)
Designing a Reading Program	315	(4)
Use Effective Teaching Principles	315	(1)
Provide Prereading Experiences	316	(1)
Consider the Nature of Reading Development	316	(1)
Provide Explicit and Implicit Reading Instruction	317	(2)
Teaching Strategies in Reading	319	(2)
Keyword Method	319	(1)
Reciprocal Teaching	320	(1)
Mapping Strategies	320	(1)
Reading and Study Skills for Adolescents	321	(2)
Reading Rate	321	(1)
Study Skills	322	(1)
Learning Strategies	322	(1)
Reading Activities	323	(7)
Prereading Activities: Concepts About Print	323	(1)
Prereading Activities: Phonological Awareness	324	(1)
Word-Attack Activities	325	(2)
Fluency Activities	327	(1)
Vocabulary Activities	327	(1)
Comprehension Activities	328	(2)
Instructional Games in Reading	330	(2)
Self-Correcting Reading Materials	332	(3)
Commercial Reading Programs	335	(2)
Computer Software Programs in Reading	337	(3)
Assessing and Teaching Spelling	340	(26)
Assessment of Spelling Skills	342	(6)
Formal Spelling Assessment	342	(2)
Informal Spelling Assessment	344	(4)
Teaching Spelling Skills	348	(7)
Rule-Based Instruction	349	(1)
Multisensory Approach	350	(1)
Test-Study-Test Technique	351	(2)
Fixed and Flow Word Lists	353	(1)
Imitation Methods	354	(1)
Additional Considerations	354	(1)
Spelling Activities	355	(2)
Instructional Games in Spelling	357	(3)
Self-Correcting Spelling Materials	360	(3)
Commercial Spelling Programs	363	(1)
Computer Software Programs in Spelling	364	(2)
Assessing and Teaching Handwriting and Written Expression	366	(37)
Handwriting Problems	367	(1)
Assessment of Handwriting Skills	367	(3)
Formal Handwriting Assessment	367	(2)
Informal Handwriting Assessment	369	(1)
Teaching Handwriting Skills	370	(10)
Readiness Skills	374	(1)
Manuscript Writing	375	(2)
Transitional Writing	377	(1)
Cursive Writing	378	(2)
Typewriting and Keyboarding	380	(1)
Handwriting Activities	380	(2)
Readiness Activities	380	(1)
Manuscript Writing Activities	381	(1)
Cursive Writing Activities	382	(1)
Commercial Handwriting Programs	382	(1)
Written Expression Skills	383	(1)
Assessment of Written Expression Skills	384	(7)
Formal Written Expression Assessment	384	(1)
Informal Written Expression Assessment	384	(7)
Teaching Written Expression Skills	391	(6)
Process Approach to Writing	391	(3)
Writing Instruction	394	(3)
Written Expression Activities	397	(3)
Fluency and Syntax Development Activities	398	(1)
Vocabulary Development Activities	398	(1)
Structure Development Activities	398	(1)
Content Development Activities	399	(1)
Commercial Written Expression Programs	400	(1)
Computer Software Programs in Written Expression	401	(2)
Assessing Math	403	(24)
Development of Math Skills	405	(2)
Readiness for Number Instruction	405	(1)
Readiness for More Advanced Mathematics	406	(1)
Assessment Considerations	407	(4)
Examining Math Errors	407	(3)
Determining Level of Understanding	410	(1)
Determining Mastery Learning	411	(1)
Assessment of Math Skills	411	(16)
Formal Math Assessment	411	(1)
Informal Math Assessment	412	(15)
Teaching Math	427	(57)
Basic Terms and Processes	429	(1)
Research on Effective Math Instruction	429	(9)
Selecting Appropriate Mathematics Content	430	(1)
Teaching the Acquisition of Math	431	(3)
Teaching Mastery	434	(1)
Teaching Problem Solving	435	(1)
Teaching Generalization	436	(1)
Using Explicit-Implicit Math Instruction	437	(1)
Promoting a Positive Attitude Toward Math	438	(1)
Instructional Practices for Computation and Problem Solving	438	(24)
Thornton and Toohey Math Facts Program	438	(3)
Mercer and Miller Math Facts Program	441	(1)
Concrete-Semiconcrete-Abstract Activities	442	(8)
Basic Rules and Algorithms	450	(4)
Problem-Solving Interventions	454	(3)
Functional Math	457	(2)
Estimation	459	(2)
Calculators	461	(1)
Math Activities	462	(12)
Readiness	462	(1)
Place Value	463	(1)
General Computation	464	(1)
Addition	465	(1)
Subtraction	466	(1)
Multiplication	467	(2)
Division	469	(1)
Fractions	469	(2)
Time	471	(1)
Decimals/Money	472	(1)
Measurement	473	(1)
Word Problems	473	(1)
Instructional Games in Math	474	(3)
Self-Correcting Math Materials	477	(3)
Commercial Math Programs	480	(2)
Computer Software Programs in Math	482	(1)
Perspective	483	(1)
Teaching Learning Strategies, Content, and Study Skills	484	(37)
Motivation	486	(1)
Learning Strategies	487	(6)
Learning Strategies Curriculum	487	(2)
Features of Effective Learning Strategies	489	(1)
Instructional Procedures	489	(4)
Content Instruction	493	(12)
Content Enhancements	494	(7)
Adapting Materials	501	(1)
Assignments	502	(1)
Tutoring	503	(1)
Testing	504	(1)
Administrative Considerations	504	(1)
Study Skills	505	(14)
Preparatory Study Skills	505	(2)
Acquisition Study Skills	507	(7)
Recall Study Skills	514	(1)
Expression Study Skills	515	(4)
Commercial Learning Strategies and Study Skills Programs	519	(1)
Computer Software Programs in Learning Strategies and Study Skills	519	(2)
Promoting Transitions	521	(18)
Adults with Learning Disabilities	522	(3)
Transitions from Secondary Settings	525	(1)
Transition Program Components	525	(1)
Transition Program Participants and Transition Plans	526	(1)
Program Areas in Transition Education	526	(9)
Academic Interventions	527	(1)
Life Skills Instruction	528	(4)
Career and Vocational Education	532	(3)
Self-Advocacy and Self-Determination Instruction	535	(1)
College Students with Special Needs	535	(2)
Commercial Transition Education Programs	537	(1)
Computer Software Programs in Transition Education	538	(1)
Appendix A Scope and Sequence Skills Lists	539	(2)
Appendix B Publishers of Books, Tests, and Materials	541	(2)
References	543	(32)
Author Index	575	(8)
Subject Index	583

Excerpts

Most educators can recall key events that made lasting impressions on their minds or hearts. One such event occurred in 1968 during a PTA meeting at a small elementary school next to the Blue Ridge Mountains in Virginia. The officers of the PTA were concerned about the uninterested, unmotivated, and misbehaving students in their school, and they asked me to discuss the topic. More than 70 people--parents, teachers, and central office staff--entered the small cafeteria for the PTA meeting.Within a few minutes I was introduced. I told the audience that I was delighted to be with them and wanted to begin by giving them a short test. The test consisted of a problem involving the transporting of a chicken, a fox, and a bag of chicken feed across a lake. However, the problem was designed so that it was impossible to answer correctly. I gave these instructions: "This is a short test that most people with average ability finish in 1 minute. When I say 'Begin,' please start. Ready?" Toward the end of the minute, many of the assemblage were mumbling, fidgeting, and attempting to look at others' papers. I called time and asked how many had solved the problem. Nobody raised a hand. With a puzzled expression I said, "You must be tired. I'll give you another minute. Slow learners usually can solve it in 2 minutes."Although I had anticipated some frustration, the behavior of this group of adults during the next minute was somewhat surprising. Many cheated, some cursed, others broke my pencils, and still others crumpled up the test and tossed it aside. At the end of the minute I informed them that time was up. I asked several people how they felt. Responses included: "I feel like punching you in the mouth." "I want to leave and never come back:' "I'd like to give you a piece of my mind." "What's the answer to this expletive thing?"Within 2 minutes, this situation had prompted adults to cheat, swear, want to leave, destroy property, threaten physical violence, and talk rudely. I pointed out that what had happened to them was the same thing that often happens to students with learning problems. Tasks are assigned that are too difficult or practically impossible for them to do correctly. Moreover, failure to do these tasks generally is viewed as a reflection of one's ability. The point was clear: Both students and adults are inclined to act aggressively or avoid situations in which they are given inappropriate tasks. With adults reacting so quickly and intensely to this type of failure, I was reminded of what happens to youngsters who customarily face failure within the schools. Ann and I enthusiastically share the conviction of many educators that students with learning problems have a right to educational programs tailored to their unique needs. To us, individualized programming involvesthe student working on appropriate tasks or content over time under effective motivational conditions.The primary purpose of this book is to prepare special education professors and teachers, resource room teachers, remedial education teachers, and general education teachers for the challenges of individualized programming for students with learning or behavioral problems. Individualized programming requires an understanding of subject matter, assessmeiat, effective teaching practices for each content area, instructional activities, independent work activities, and commercial programs and software. Moreover, the complex needs of students with learning problems and the abundance of interventions necessitate that special education teachers collaborate with general education teachers, other professionals, and parents. As teachers of elementary, secondary, and university students, we have had difficulty finding a text that covers all of these areas. Resource and classroom teachers as well as special education professors often refer to one text for instructional activities, another for teacher-made materials, ano