Name: Road Pricing, the Economy and the Environment
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ISBN: 9783540771494

In Memory of Professor Chris Jensen-Butler	p. v
Introduction	p. 1
Road Pricing in Europe - A Review of Research and Practice	p. 5
Introduction	p. 5
The Current Situation	p. 6
Background	p. 6
Current Pricing Policies at National Level	p. 7
EU Pricing Policy	p. 8
The Need for Pricing Policy Reform	p. 9
Key Issues, Concepts and Approaches	p. 10
The Goals of Road Pricing	p. 10
Theoretical Approaches to Road Pricing	p. 11
Practical Approaches and Instruments	p. 12
Road Pricing in Practice in Urban Transport	p. 14
Current Schemes in Urban Transport Pricing	p. 14
Barriers on Urban Road Pricing	p. 15
The Next Steps in Urban Road Pricing	p. 18
Road Pricing in Practice in Interurban Transport	p. 19
Current Schemes in Interurban Transport	p. 19
Barriers in Interurban Road Pricing	p. 21
The Next Steps in Interurban Road Pricing	p. 22
Conclusions	p. 22
Lessons from Research	p. 22
Lessons from Practical Experience: What Next?	p. 24
Road Pricing: Consequences for Traffic, Congestion and Location	p. 29
Introduction	p. 29
Application of a Zone-Based Road Pricing System to Stockholm	p. 31
Scenarios	p. 31
Modelling Approach	p. 32
Transport Effects	p. 33
Application of a Distance-Based Road Pricing System to Stockholm	p. 37
Scenarios	p. 37
Modelling Approach	p. 38
Transport Effects	p. 38
Application of Optimal Congestion Pricing to a Generic City	p. 40
Modelling Approach	p. 40
Scenarios	p. 42
Transport and Location Effects	p. 43
Discussion and Conclusions	p. 45
Implementation Paths for Marginal Cost-Based Pricing in Urban Transport: Theoretical Considerations and Case Study Results	p. 49
Introduction	p. 50
Implementation Paths: Motivation and Theory	p. 50
Barriers	p. 51
Constraints on Pricing	p. 53
Correspondence Between Barriers and Constraints	p. 54
Formulating Implementation Paths	p. 56
Description of the MC-ICAM Urban Case Studies	p. 58
The Paris Case Study	p. 58
The Brussels Case Study	p. 60
The Helsinki Case Study	p. 61
The Greater Oslo Case Study	p. 61
Assessment of the Case Studies	p. 61
Implementation Paths in the Case Studies	p. 62
Paris	p. 65
Brussels	p. 65
Helsinki	p. 66
Greater Oslo	p. 67
Role of Barriers and Constraints in the Case Study Implementation Paths	p. 68
Case Study Findings	p. 68
Main Results	p. 68
Some Specific Issues	p. 73
Concluding Remarks	p. 75
Summary	p. 75
Theoretical vs. Practical Approaches to the IPs	p. 76
Questions of Priority and Timing	p. 76
Other Limitations of the Case Studies	p. 77
The London Congestion Charging Scheme: The Evidence	p. 79
Introduction	p. 79
Background to the LCCS	p. 79
The Working of the LCCS	p. 82
Theory of Area Pricing	p. 83
Evidence on LCCS	p. 84
Interpretation of the Evidence	p. 85
Extension of LCCS Area	p. 87
Relevance to Other Urban Road Pricing Schemes	p. 87
Conclusions	p. 88
The AKTA Road Pricing Experiment in Copenhagen	p. 93
Introduction	p. 94
Design of the Experiment	p. 94
Survey Setup	p. 95
Pricing Schemes	p. 96
Practical Issues	p. 97
Problems with the GPS Technology	p. 98
Adding a Third Round	p. 99
General Results	p. 100
Socioeconomic Variables for AKTA Participants	p. 100
Experience and Attitudes Towards Road Pricing	p. 101
The General Population Survey of Attitudes Towards Road Pricing	p. 103
Behavioural Changes and AKTA: The Main Results	p. 105
Discussion and Conclusions	p. 107
GPS Technology	p. 107
The Main Experimental Design	p. 107
Changes in Behaviour and Evaluation of Different Pricing Schemes	p. 108
Attitudes Towards Road Pricing	p. 108
Experience with Measuring Equity and Efficiency: A Case from Oslo	p. 111
Introduction	p. 111
Equity Measures	p. 113
Properties of Equity Measures	p. 114
Some Inequality Measures	p. 115
Evaluation of Alternative Packages of Instruments for Oslo	p. 117
A Sensitivity Analysis of MCF	p. 122
An Evaluation of the Equity Implications of an "Optimal" Package	p. 123
Some Conclusions	p. 129
Transport Costs in a Multiregional Equilibrium Job Search Model	p. 133
Introduction	p. 133
The Basic Model	p. 136
The Matching Model	p. 136
Job Destruction	p. 137
Equilibrium Employment and Unemployment	p. 137
Job Creation	p. 138
Workers	p. 138
The Spatial Wage Equation	p. 138
Reservation Commuting Costs	p. 139
Simulations with the Fundamental Model	p. 140
Theoretical Extensions	p. 141
Road Pricing and Regional Distributional Effects	p. 144
The Case of Zealand	p. 154
Conclusion	p. 164
Evaluation of the Introduction of Road Pricing Using a Computable General Equilibrium Model	p. 167
Introduction	p. 167
The Theoretical Model	p. 168
Application of the Theory of Public Economics to the Taxation of Transport and Investment in Transport Infrastructure	p. 170
Taking into Account that Leisure Travel is Complementary to Leisure	p. 171
Taking into Account that Transport is Associated with Externalities	p. 172
Taking into Account that Leisure Travel is Predominately Consumed by Households with a Relatively High Income	p. 172
Reasons for Taxing Transport Higher than Other Goods	p. 173
The Optimal Size of the Transport Infrastructure	p. 173
The Effect of the Introduction of Road Pricing on the Optimal Taxation of Transport and the Optimal Provision of Transport Infrastructure	p. 173
The Introduction of Road Pricing will be Associated with a Double Dividend	p. 174
The Parameterised Model	p. 175
Specification of Functional Forms for Free Road Capacity and Environmental Externalities	p. 175
Specification of Household Preferences	p. 176
Real Income and Social Welfare	p. 177
The Specification of the Parameterised Model	p. 178
Presentation and Interpretation of Simulation Results	p. 180
Consequence Analysis	p. 180
Project Evaluation	p. 183
Optimality Analysis	p. 184
Conclusion	p. 188
Efficiency and Equity Considerations in Road Pricing	p. 193
Introduction	p. 193
Aspects of Equity	p. 195
Indicators of Equity	p. 197
Equity, Efficiency and Modelling	p. 201
Optimal Road Pricing Subject to Equity Constraints	p. 203
Solving the Optimisation Problem	p. 204
Conclusions	p. 204
Modelling the Economy, Transport and Environment Triangle, with an Application to Dutch Maglev Projects	p. 207
Introduction	p. 207
The Different Nature of the Three Types of Interaction	p. 208
Modelling Environmental Impacts	p. 210
Modelling Transport-Economy Interactions	p. 211
An Application of Dutch Maglev Proposals	p. 214
Introduction	p. 214
Modelling the Interaction Between the Economy and the Transport System	p. 217
A Welfare Evaluation of External Effects	p. 221
Conclusion	p. 223
A Systems Approach to Modelling the Regional Economic Effects of Road Pricing	p. 229
Introduction	p. 229
A Systems Approach to Regional and Sub-Regional Economic Modelling	p. 232
Data and Accounting Principles	p. 232
Modelling Principles	p. 232
Optimal Model Structure	p. 235
A Loosely Coupled Model for Transport and Agriculture	p. 235
The Linking Procedures	p. 237
Linking the Models Within the Transport Sector	p. 237
Linking the Transport and Regional Economic Models	p. 240
LINE: the Full Model, a Graphical Presentation	p. 242
The Dimensions of LINE	p. 245
Road Pricing and Modelling its Impacts	p. 247
Road Pricing	p. 247
Results from the Danish Road Pricing Toll Study	p. 247
Changes in Transport Costs	p. 248
Changes in Commodity Prices and Disposable Incomes	p. 251
Changes in Demand, Production and Income	p. 253
Changes in Employment and Income	p. 253
Recycling the Revenue from Road Pricing: a Balanced Budget	p. 256
Limitations of the Model and Future Development Strategies	p. 259
Conclusion	p. 260
External Effects and Road Charging	p. 267
Introduction	p. 267
External Effects: Background	p. 268
Demand Effect from Road Charging	p. 270
Charging and Demand: Experience from London, Stockholm and Copenhagen	p. 270
Internalisation of External Effects Through Road Charging	p. 272
Road Safety	p. 272
Traffic Noise	p. 273
Emission	p. 274
Summary and Conclusions	p. 274
Assessing the Impacts of Traffic Air Pollution on Human Exposure and Health	p. 277
Introduction	p. 277
Air Pollution in Urban Areas	p. 278
Urban Background and Street Pollution	p. 279
Air Pollution Exposure Assessment	p. 280
Direct Methods for Exposure Assessment	p. 280
Indirect Methods for Exposure Assessment	p. 281
Monitoring Networks	p. 281
Application of Models for Exposure Assessment	p. 282
Modelling Long Range Transport of Pollution	p. 282
Modelling Pollution in the Urban Background	p. 284
Modelling Urban Street Pollution	p. 285
Modelling Nitrogen Oxide Chemistry in Street and Urban Background	p. 285
Determination of Emissions and Emission Factors	p. 286
Particle Pollution	p. 286
Source of Traffic Particles and Modelling	p. 287
Other Particle Sources	p. 289
Examples of Exposure Assessment in Danish Studies	p. 290
Exposure of Bus Drivers and Postmen in Copenhagen	p. 290
Exposure of Danish Children to Traffic Air Pollution	p. 292
Personal Monitoring of Air Pollution Exposure in Copenhagen	p. 292
Using GIS in Street Pollution Modelling for Exposure Assessment	p. 293
Assessment of Health Effects of Air Pollution Exposure	p. 296
Perspectives	p. 297
Car Use Habits: An Obstacle to the Use of Public Transportation?	p. 301
Introduction	p. 301
Method	p. 304
Data	p. 304
Results	p. 307
Summary and Implications	p. 308
Road Pricing in Denmark - User Attitudes and User Reactions	p. 315
Introduction	p. 315
User Studies of the FORTRIN project	p. 316
Pricing Strategy	p. 316
Test Population	p. 317
Focus-Group Meetings	p. 317
The Study by Questionnaires	p. 319
Trip Logs	p. 320
Conclusions of the FORTRIN Study	p. 320
AKTA - the Road Pricing Study of Copenhagen	p. 321
Design of the Study	p. 321
Different User Studies	p. 321
Results from Telephone Interviews	p. 322
Pricing Schemes	p. 324
Focus Groups	p. 326
Key Results from Questionnaires	p. 327
Overall Conclusions of the Two User Studies	p. 329
A Cost-Minimisation Principle of Adaptation of Private Car Use in Response to Road Pricing Schemes	p. 331
Introduction	p. 331
Market-Based Travel Demand Management (TDM) Measures	p. 332
Classification of Travel Demand Management (TDM) Measures	p. 333
Coerciveness	p. 334
Tow-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processes	p. 335
Time SCale	p. 335
Spatial Scale	p. 336
Market-Based vs. Regulatory Mechanisms	p. 336
Impacting Latent vs. Manifest Travel Demand	p. 337
Theoretical Framework	p. 338
Implications for the Effectiveness of TDM Measures	p. 342
Summary and Discussion	p. 343
Car Users' Trade-Offs Between Time, Trip Length, Cost and Road Pricing in Behavioural Models	p. 351
Introduction	p. 352
SP Design	p. 352
Awareness of Travel Distance and Travel Time	p. 354
SP Model Estimation	p. 357
Model Formulation (Utility Functions)	p. 357
Income Effect Models	p. 361
Alternative Model Formulations	p. 362
The RP Route Choice Model	p. 362
Utility Function	p. 363
Estimation	p. 363
Within Person Variation	p. 364
Between Person Variation	p. 365
Estimation of the Impact of Road Pricing on Traffic	p. 367
Income Effect	p. 369
Other Explanatory Variables	p. 370
Comparison Between SP and RP Models	p. 371
Summary and Conclusions	p. 372
The Impacts of e-Work and e-Commerce on Transport, the Environment and the Economy	p. 375
Being Active Without Moving	p. 375
The UK Study	p. 376
E-Work	p. 377
E-Business and e-Commerce	p. 380
Rebounds	p. 383
Environment	p. 385
Economic Growth, Transport Growth and European Policy	p. 387
Future Research Directions	p. 388
Conclusion	p. 389
A Web-Based Study of the Propensity to Telework Based on Socio-Economic, Work Organisation and Spatial Factors	p. 395
Introduction	p. 395
Teleworking: Theoretical and Methodological Issues	p. 396
Defining Teleworking	p. 396
The Extent of Teleworking	p. 397
Teleworking and Savings in Transport Effort	p. 397
Modelling the Take-Up of Teleworking	p. 398
Technology Issues	p. 399
Long-Term Effects	p. 399
The Determinants of Teleworking and Transport Substitution Effects	p. 400
The Consequences for Travel of Working at Home	p. 400
Determinants of Teleworking	p. 401
Multivariate Relations	p. 404
Long-Term Effects of Teleworking	p. 406
Conclusion	p. 408
The Impact of Telecommuting on Households' Travel Behaviour, Expenditures and Emissions	p. 411
Introduction	p. 411
Model	p. 414
Method	p. 416
Results	p. 417
Sample Characteristics	p. 417
Travel Behaviour	p. 417
Expenditures	p. 419
Emissions	p. 420
Discussion and Conclusion	p. 420
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Road Pricing, the Economy and the Environment

9783540771494

3540771492

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