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In Memory of Professor Chris Jensen-Butler | p. v |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Road Pricing in Europe - A Review of Research and Practice | p. 5 |
Introduction | p. 5 |
The Current Situation | p. 6 |
Background | p. 6 |
Current Pricing Policies at National Level | p. 7 |
EU Pricing Policy | p. 8 |
The Need for Pricing Policy Reform | p. 9 |
Key Issues, Concepts and Approaches | p. 10 |
The Goals of Road Pricing | p. 10 |
Theoretical Approaches to Road Pricing | p. 11 |
Practical Approaches and Instruments | p. 12 |
Road Pricing in Practice in Urban Transport | p. 14 |
Current Schemes in Urban Transport Pricing | p. 14 |
Barriers on Urban Road Pricing | p. 15 |
The Next Steps in Urban Road Pricing | p. 18 |
Road Pricing in Practice in Interurban Transport | p. 19 |
Current Schemes in Interurban Transport | p. 19 |
Barriers in Interurban Road Pricing | p. 21 |
The Next Steps in Interurban Road Pricing | p. 22 |
Conclusions | p. 22 |
Lessons from Research | p. 22 |
Lessons from Practical Experience: What Next? | p. 24 |
Road Pricing: Consequences for Traffic, Congestion and Location | p. 29 |
Introduction | p. 29 |
Application of a Zone-Based Road Pricing System to Stockholm | p. 31 |
Scenarios | p. 31 |
Modelling Approach | p. 32 |
Transport Effects | p. 33 |
Application of a Distance-Based Road Pricing System to Stockholm | p. 37 |
Scenarios | p. 37 |
Modelling Approach | p. 38 |
Transport Effects | p. 38 |
Application of Optimal Congestion Pricing to a Generic City | p. 40 |
Modelling Approach | p. 40 |
Scenarios | p. 42 |
Transport and Location Effects | p. 43 |
Discussion and Conclusions | p. 45 |
Implementation Paths for Marginal Cost-Based Pricing in Urban Transport: Theoretical Considerations and Case Study Results | p. 49 |
Introduction | p. 50 |
Implementation Paths: Motivation and Theory | p. 50 |
Barriers | p. 51 |
Constraints on Pricing | p. 53 |
Correspondence Between Barriers and Constraints | p. 54 |
Formulating Implementation Paths | p. 56 |
Description of the MC-ICAM Urban Case Studies | p. 58 |
The Paris Case Study | p. 58 |
The Brussels Case Study | p. 60 |
The Helsinki Case Study | p. 61 |
The Greater Oslo Case Study | p. 61 |
Assessment of the Case Studies | p. 61 |
Implementation Paths in the Case Studies | p. 62 |
Paris | p. 65 |
Brussels | p. 65 |
Helsinki | p. 66 |
Greater Oslo | p. 67 |
Role of Barriers and Constraints in the Case Study Implementation Paths | p. 68 |
Case Study Findings | p. 68 |
Main Results | p. 68 |
Some Specific Issues | p. 73 |
Concluding Remarks | p. 75 |
Summary | p. 75 |
Theoretical vs. Practical Approaches to the IPs | p. 76 |
Questions of Priority and Timing | p. 76 |
Other Limitations of the Case Studies | p. 77 |
The London Congestion Charging Scheme: The Evidence | p. 79 |
Introduction | p. 79 |
Background to the LCCS | p. 79 |
The Working of the LCCS | p. 82 |
Theory of Area Pricing | p. 83 |
Evidence on LCCS | p. 84 |
Interpretation of the Evidence | p. 85 |
Extension of LCCS Area | p. 87 |
Relevance to Other Urban Road Pricing Schemes | p. 87 |
Conclusions | p. 88 |
The AKTA Road Pricing Experiment in Copenhagen | p. 93 |
Introduction | p. 94 |
Design of the Experiment | p. 94 |
Survey Setup | p. 95 |
Pricing Schemes | p. 96 |
Practical Issues | p. 97 |
Problems with the GPS Technology | p. 98 |
Adding a Third Round | p. 99 |
General Results | p. 100 |
Socioeconomic Variables for AKTA Participants | p. 100 |
Experience and Attitudes Towards Road Pricing | p. 101 |
The General Population Survey of Attitudes Towards Road Pricing | p. 103 |
Behavioural Changes and AKTA: The Main Results | p. 105 |
Discussion and Conclusions | p. 107 |
GPS Technology | p. 107 |
The Main Experimental Design | p. 107 |
Changes in Behaviour and Evaluation of Different Pricing Schemes | p. 108 |
Attitudes Towards Road Pricing | p. 108 |
Experience with Measuring Equity and Efficiency: A Case from Oslo | p. 111 |
Introduction | p. 111 |
Equity Measures | p. 113 |
Properties of Equity Measures | p. 114 |
Some Inequality Measures | p. 115 |
Evaluation of Alternative Packages of Instruments for Oslo | p. 117 |
A Sensitivity Analysis of MCF | p. 122 |
An Evaluation of the Equity Implications of an "Optimal" Package | p. 123 |
Some Conclusions | p. 129 |
Transport Costs in a Multiregional Equilibrium Job Search Model | p. 133 |
Introduction | p. 133 |
The Basic Model | p. 136 |
The Matching Model | p. 136 |
Job Destruction | p. 137 |
Equilibrium Employment and Unemployment | p. 137 |
Job Creation | p. 138 |
Workers | p. 138 |
The Spatial Wage Equation | p. 138 |
Reservation Commuting Costs | p. 139 |
Simulations with the Fundamental Model | p. 140 |
Theoretical Extensions | p. 141 |
Road Pricing and Regional Distributional Effects | p. 144 |
The Case of Zealand | p. 154 |
Conclusion | p. 164 |
Evaluation of the Introduction of Road Pricing Using a Computable General Equilibrium Model | p. 167 |
Introduction | p. 167 |
The Theoretical Model | p. 168 |
Application of the Theory of Public Economics to the Taxation of Transport and Investment in Transport Infrastructure | p. 170 |
Taking into Account that Leisure Travel is Complementary to Leisure | p. 171 |
Taking into Account that Transport is Associated with Externalities | p. 172 |
Taking into Account that Leisure Travel is Predominately Consumed by Households with a Relatively High Income | p. 172 |
Reasons for Taxing Transport Higher than Other Goods | p. 173 |
The Optimal Size of the Transport Infrastructure | p. 173 |
The Effect of the Introduction of Road Pricing on the Optimal Taxation of Transport and the Optimal Provision of Transport Infrastructure | p. 173 |
The Introduction of Road Pricing will be Associated with a Double Dividend | p. 174 |
The Parameterised Model | p. 175 |
Specification of Functional Forms for Free Road Capacity and Environmental Externalities | p. 175 |
Specification of Household Preferences | p. 176 |
Real Income and Social Welfare | p. 177 |
The Specification of the Parameterised Model | p. 178 |
Presentation and Interpretation of Simulation Results | p. 180 |
Consequence Analysis | p. 180 |
Project Evaluation | p. 183 |
Optimality Analysis | p. 184 |
Conclusion | p. 188 |
Efficiency and Equity Considerations in Road Pricing | p. 193 |
Introduction | p. 193 |
Aspects of Equity | p. 195 |
Indicators of Equity | p. 197 |
Equity, Efficiency and Modelling | p. 201 |
Optimal Road Pricing Subject to Equity Constraints | p. 203 |
Solving the Optimisation Problem | p. 204 |
Conclusions | p. 204 |
Modelling the Economy, Transport and Environment Triangle, with an Application to Dutch Maglev Projects | p. 207 |
Introduction | p. 207 |
The Different Nature of the Three Types of Interaction | p. 208 |
Modelling Environmental Impacts | p. 210 |
Modelling Transport-Economy Interactions | p. 211 |
An Application of Dutch Maglev Proposals | p. 214 |
Introduction | p. 214 |
Modelling the Interaction Between the Economy and the Transport System | p. 217 |
A Welfare Evaluation of External Effects | p. 221 |
Conclusion | p. 223 |
A Systems Approach to Modelling the Regional Economic Effects of Road Pricing | p. 229 |
Introduction | p. 229 |
A Systems Approach to Regional and Sub-Regional Economic Modelling | p. 232 |
Data and Accounting Principles | p. 232 |
Modelling Principles | p. 232 |
Optimal Model Structure | p. 235 |
A Loosely Coupled Model for Transport and Agriculture | p. 235 |
The Linking Procedures | p. 237 |
Linking the Models Within the Transport Sector | p. 237 |
Linking the Transport and Regional Economic Models | p. 240 |
LINE: the Full Model, a Graphical Presentation | p. 242 |
The Dimensions of LINE | p. 245 |
Road Pricing and Modelling its Impacts | p. 247 |
Road Pricing | p. 247 |
Results from the Danish Road Pricing Toll Study | p. 247 |
Changes in Transport Costs | p. 248 |
Changes in Commodity Prices and Disposable Incomes | p. 251 |
Changes in Demand, Production and Income | p. 253 |
Changes in Employment and Income | p. 253 |
Recycling the Revenue from Road Pricing: a Balanced Budget | p. 256 |
Limitations of the Model and Future Development Strategies | p. 259 |
Conclusion | p. 260 |
External Effects and Road Charging | p. 267 |
Introduction | p. 267 |
External Effects: Background | p. 268 |
Demand Effect from Road Charging | p. 270 |
Charging and Demand: Experience from London, Stockholm and Copenhagen | p. 270 |
Internalisation of External Effects Through Road Charging | p. 272 |
Road Safety | p. 272 |
Traffic Noise | p. 273 |
Emission | p. 274 |
Summary and Conclusions | p. 274 |
Assessing the Impacts of Traffic Air Pollution on Human Exposure and Health | p. 277 |
Introduction | p. 277 |
Air Pollution in Urban Areas | p. 278 |
Urban Background and Street Pollution | p. 279 |
Air Pollution Exposure Assessment | p. 280 |
Direct Methods for Exposure Assessment | p. 280 |
Indirect Methods for Exposure Assessment | p. 281 |
Monitoring Networks | p. 281 |
Application of Models for Exposure Assessment | p. 282 |
Modelling Long Range Transport of Pollution | p. 282 |
Modelling Pollution in the Urban Background | p. 284 |
Modelling Urban Street Pollution | p. 285 |
Modelling Nitrogen Oxide Chemistry in Street and Urban Background | p. 285 |
Determination of Emissions and Emission Factors | p. 286 |
Particle Pollution | p. 286 |
Source of Traffic Particles and Modelling | p. 287 |
Other Particle Sources | p. 289 |
Examples of Exposure Assessment in Danish Studies | p. 290 |
Exposure of Bus Drivers and Postmen in Copenhagen | p. 290 |
Exposure of Danish Children to Traffic Air Pollution | p. 292 |
Personal Monitoring of Air Pollution Exposure in Copenhagen | p. 292 |
Using GIS in Street Pollution Modelling for Exposure Assessment | p. 293 |
Assessment of Health Effects of Air Pollution Exposure | p. 296 |
Perspectives | p. 297 |
Car Use Habits: An Obstacle to the Use of Public Transportation? | p. 301 |
Introduction | p. 301 |
Method | p. 304 |
Data | p. 304 |
Results | p. 307 |
Summary and Implications | p. 308 |
Road Pricing in Denmark - User Attitudes and User Reactions | p. 315 |
Introduction | p. 315 |
User Studies of the FORTRIN project | p. 316 |
Pricing Strategy | p. 316 |
Test Population | p. 317 |
Focus-Group Meetings | p. 317 |
The Study by Questionnaires | p. 319 |
Trip Logs | p. 320 |
Conclusions of the FORTRIN Study | p. 320 |
AKTA - the Road Pricing Study of Copenhagen | p. 321 |
Design of the Study | p. 321 |
Different User Studies | p. 321 |
Results from Telephone Interviews | p. 322 |
Pricing Schemes | p. 324 |
Focus Groups | p. 326 |
Key Results from Questionnaires | p. 327 |
Overall Conclusions of the Two User Studies | p. 329 |
A Cost-Minimisation Principle of Adaptation of Private Car Use in Response to Road Pricing Schemes | p. 331 |
Introduction | p. 331 |
Market-Based Travel Demand Management (TDM) Measures | p. 332 |
Classification of Travel Demand Management (TDM) Measures | p. 333 |
Coerciveness | p. 334 |
Tow-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processes | p. 335 |
Time SCale | p. 335 |
Spatial Scale | p. 336 |
Market-Based vs. Regulatory Mechanisms | p. 336 |
Impacting Latent vs. Manifest Travel Demand | p. 337 |
Theoretical Framework | p. 338 |
Implications for the Effectiveness of TDM Measures | p. 342 |
Summary and Discussion | p. 343 |
Car Users' Trade-Offs Between Time, Trip Length, Cost and Road Pricing in Behavioural Models | p. 351 |
Introduction | p. 352 |
SP Design | p. 352 |
Awareness of Travel Distance and Travel Time | p. 354 |
SP Model Estimation | p. 357 |
Model Formulation (Utility Functions) | p. 357 |
Income Effect Models | p. 361 |
Alternative Model Formulations | p. 362 |
The RP Route Choice Model | p. 362 |
Utility Function | p. 363 |
Estimation | p. 363 |
Within Person Variation | p. 364 |
Between Person Variation | p. 365 |
Estimation of the Impact of Road Pricing on Traffic | p. 367 |
Income Effect | p. 369 |
Other Explanatory Variables | p. 370 |
Comparison Between SP and RP Models | p. 371 |
Summary and Conclusions | p. 372 |
The Impacts of e-Work and e-Commerce on Transport, the Environment and the Economy | p. 375 |
Being Active Without Moving | p. 375 |
The UK Study | p. 376 |
E-Work | p. 377 |
E-Business and e-Commerce | p. 380 |
Rebounds | p. 383 |
Environment | p. 385 |
Economic Growth, Transport Growth and European Policy | p. 387 |
Future Research Directions | p. 388 |
Conclusion | p. 389 |
A Web-Based Study of the Propensity to Telework Based on Socio-Economic, Work Organisation and Spatial Factors | p. 395 |
Introduction | p. 395 |
Teleworking: Theoretical and Methodological Issues | p. 396 |
Defining Teleworking | p. 396 |
The Extent of Teleworking | p. 397 |
Teleworking and Savings in Transport Effort | p. 397 |
Modelling the Take-Up of Teleworking | p. 398 |
Technology Issues | p. 399 |
Long-Term Effects | p. 399 |
The Determinants of Teleworking and Transport Substitution Effects | p. 400 |
The Consequences for Travel of Working at Home | p. 400 |
Determinants of Teleworking | p. 401 |
Multivariate Relations | p. 404 |
Long-Term Effects of Teleworking | p. 406 |
Conclusion | p. 408 |
The Impact of Telecommuting on Households' Travel Behaviour, Expenditures and Emissions | p. 411 |
Introduction | p. 411 |
Model | p. 414 |
Method | p. 416 |
Results | p. 417 |
Sample Characteristics | p. 417 |
Travel Behaviour | p. 417 |
Expenditures | p. 419 |
Emissions | p. 420 |
Discussion and Conclusion | p. 420 |
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