Additives for Plastics Handbook

by Murphy

• ISBN13: 9781856173704
• ISBN10: 1856173704
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2001-11-22
• Publisher: Elsevier Science

Summary

Both technically and economically, additives form a large and increasingly significant part of the polymer industry, both plastics and elastomers. Since the first edition of this book was published, there have been wide-ranging developments, covering chemistry and formulation of new and more efficient additive systems and the safer use of additives, both by processors in the factory and, in the wider field, as they affect the general public. This new edition follows the successful formula of its predecessor, it provides a comprehensive view of all types of additives, concentrating mainly on their technical aspects (chemistry/formulation, structure, function, main applications) with notes on the commercial background of each. The field has been expanded to include any substance that is added to a polymer to improve its use, so including reinforcing materials (such as glass fibre), carbon black and titanium dioxide. This is a book which has been planned for ease of use and the information is presented in a way which is appropriate to the users' needs.

Table of Contents

List of Tables	xvii
List of Figures	xxi
Preface and Publishers' note	xxiii
An Overview of Additives	1	(4)
Types of Additive and the Main Technical Trends	5	(8)
Current Lines of Development	5	(4)
Fillers	6	(1)
Pigments	7	(1)
Plasticizers	7	(1)
Stabilizers	8	(1)
Flame retardants	8	(1)
Special Additives	9	(1)
Antistatic and conductive additives	9	(1)
Food contact and medical additives	9	(1)
Clarifiers, nucleating agents, compatibilizers	10	(1)
Multi-functional Formulations	10	(1)
Masterbatches	10	(1)
Dendritic Polymers	11	(2)
The World Market	13	(6)
World Consumption of Additives	13	(2)
The Market for Masterbatch	15	(1)
Overall Commercial Trends	15	(1)
Growth of Specialist Compounders	16	(1)
Regional Factors	16	(3)
Modifying Specific Properties: Mechanical Properties - Fillers	19	(18)
Effect of Fillers	21	(1)
Mechanical properties	21	(1)
Thermal properties	21	(1)
Moisture content	21	(1)
Reinforcement mechanism of fillers	21	(1)
Factors for Compounding	22	(2)
Aggregation of fillers	23	(1)
Types of Fillers	24	(6)
Calcium carbonate	24	(2)
Kaolin	26	(1)
Magnesium hydroxide (talc)	26	(1)
Wollastonite	27	(1)
Silica	27	(1)
Metal powders	28	(1)
Microspheres	28	(1)
Expandable microspheres	29	(1)
Cellulose fillers	30	(1)
Surface Modification	30	(2)
Particle geometry	30	(1)
Coating	31	(1)
Nano-technology	32	(3)
Processing nano-composites	32	(3)
Commercial Trends	35	(2)
Modifying Specific Properties: Mechanical Properties - Reinforcements	37	(20)
Fibres: The Basic Properties	39	(1)
Types of Reinforcing Fibre	40	(9)
Aramid fibres	40	(1)
Carbon or graphite fibres	41	(2)
Glass fibre	43	(2)
E-CR glass	45	(1)
Other developments	46	(1)
Forms of glass fibre	47	(1)
Chopped/milled products	47	(1)
Polyester fibre	48	(1)
Polyethylene fibre	48	(1)
Hybrid fibres	49	(1)
Other Fibres	49	(1)
Asbestos fibre	49	(1)
Boron fibre	49	(1)
Nylon fibre	49	(1)
Natural Fibres	50	(1)
Forms of Reinforcement	51	(1)
Long-fibre Reinforcement	51	(2)
New Developments	53	(2)
Polyurethane/long fibres	54	(1)
ABS/long fibres	54	(1)
Shaped fibres	54	(1)
Commercial Trends	55	(2)
Modifying Specific Properties: Appearance - Colorants, Pigments, Dyes, Special Effects	57	(16)
Main Types of Pigment and Colorant	58	(2)
Mixed metal oxides	58	(1)
Dyes	58	(1)
Liquid colours	59	(1)
Addition of Colorants	60	(1)
Replacement of Cadmium	61	(1)
Pigments for Special Effects	62	(4)
Aluminium pigments	63	(1)
Pearlescents	63	(1)
Light interference pigments	63	(1)
Fluorescents	64	(1)
Thermochromic and photochromic pigments	64	(1)
`Intelligent' heat protection for food products	65	(1)
High-performance dyes for CD manufacture	65	(1)
Solar heat	65	(1)
Laser Marking	66	(1)
Pigment Dispersants	66	(1)
Multi-functional Systems	67	(1)
Pigments for Engineering Plastics	67	(1)
The Effect of Pigments on Dimensions	68	(1)
Colorants for Food and Medicals	69	(1)
Recent Developments	69	(2)
Colour strength	69	(1)
Weathering	69	(1)
Natural effects	70	(1)
New forms of pigment	70	(1)
Surface treatment	70	(1)
New pigment chemistry	70	(1)
Market Trends	71	(2)
Modifying Specific Properties: Appearance - Black and White Pigmentation	73	(20)
Types of White Pigment	73	(11)
Titanium dioxide	73	(1)
Surface treatments	74	(2)
Titanium dioxide grades	76	(1)
Opacity and tinting strength	76	(2)
Colour	78	(1)
Zinc sulphide	78	(2)
Other white pigments and extenders	80	(1)
Aluminium silicates	80	(1)
Barium sulphate ('blanc fixe')	80	(1)
Calcium silicate	80	(1)
Magnesium silicate	81	(1)
White masterbatch	82	(1)
New developments	82	(2)
Black Pigments	84	(8)
Types of carbon black	84	(1)
Thermal oxidative decomposition processes	85	(1)
Thermal decomposition processes	86	(1)
Effect of particle size and structure on properties of carbon blacks	86	(1)
Testing for properties: structure-effect and determination	87	(2)
Other black pigments	89	(1)
Black masterbatch	90	(1)
Recent developments	91	(1)
Commercial Trends: Titanium Dioxide	92	(1)
Commercial Trends: Carbon Black	92	(1)
Modifying Specific Properties: Resistance to Heat - Heat Stabilizers	93	(14)
How They Work	93	(2)
Antioxidants	95	(2)
Primary antioxidants	95	(1)
Secondary antioxidants	96	(1)
Blends	97	(1)
Replacement of Heavy Metals	97	(2)
Organotins	98	(1)
Effect of Silica on the Activity of Stabilizers	99	(1)
Benzoxazolone Derivatives for PVC	100	(1)
New Chemistry for Stabilizers	100	(3)
Lactone chemistry	100	(2)
Vitamin E	102	(1)
Recent Developments	103	(2)
Pipes and fittings	103	(1)
Foamed pipe	104	(1)
Cable insulation	104	(1)
Medical products	104	(1)
Other Stabilizers	105	(1)
Commercial Trends	105	(2)
Modifying Specific Properties: Resistance to Light - UV Stabilizers	107	(8)
How They Work	107	(1)
UV Screening Pigments	108	(1)
Absorbers	109	(1)
Energy Transfer Agents/Quenchers	109	(1)
Scavengers: Hindered Amine Light Stabilizers	109	(1)
Synergists with HALS	110	(1)
Polymeric Stabilizers	111	(1)
Blends	111	(1)
Replacement of Heavy Metals	111	(1)
Selection of Antioxidants for Use with UV Stabilizers	112	(1)
Concentrates, Masterbatches	113	(1)
New Chemistry	113	(1)
Recent Developments	113	(2)
Modifying Specific Properties: Flammability - Flame Retardants	115	(26)
How They Work	115	(1)
Summary of FR additives	116	(4)
Reactive FRs	118	(1)
Additive FRs	118	(1)
Inorganics	118	(2)
Halogenated Compounds	120	(3)
Chlorinated compounds	121	(1)
Brominated compounds	122	(1)
Other Flame Retardants	123	(3)
Melamine cyanurate (MC)	123	(1)
Zinc borate	124	(1)
Zinc hydroxystannate (ZHS) and zinc stannate (ZS)	125	(1)
Zinc sulphide	125	(1)
Metal hydrates	125	(1)
Phosphorus	126	(1)
Intumescent Flame Retardants	127	(1)
Halogen-free Systems	128	(2)
Wire and cable compounds	129	(1)
Combinations of Flame Retardants	130	(2)
Synergistic Reactions	132	(3)
Health and the Environment	135	(1)
Recycling	136	(1)
New Developments	137	(1)
Nano-composites	138	(1)
Commercial Trends	139	(2)
Modifying Specific Properties: Conductivity - Antistatic/Conductive Additives	141	(10)
Classification of Antistatic Additives	143	(1)
Conductive Additives	143	(1)
ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) Compounds	144	(1)
EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) Compounds	144	(1)
Metallic Additives	144	(3)
Coated Polymers	147	(1)
Intrinsically Conductive Materials	148	(1)
Moulded Circuitry	148	(1)
Recent Developments	149	(2)
Modifying Processing Characteristics: Curing and Cross-linking	151	(16)
The Curing Process	151	(1)
Terminology	152	(1)
Curing Agents, Accelerators	152	(1)
Inhibitors	153	(1)
Curing with Accelerators	154	(1)
Curing without Accelerators	154	(1)
Selecting a Curing System	155	(2)
Curing Agents for Epoxy Systems	157	(3)
Cure Promoters	160	(1)
UV Cure Initiators	160	(1)
New Developments	160	(2)
Thermoplastics Cross-linking	162	(2)
Commercial Trends	164	(3)
Modifying Processing Characteristics: Coupling, Compatibilizing Agents	167	(2)
New Developments	168	(1)
Modifying Processing Characteristics: Plasticizers	169	(8)
The Function of Plasticizers	169	(1)
Main Types of Plasticizers	170	(3)
Phthalates	170	(1)
Sebacates and adipates	171	(1)
Fatty acid esters	171	(1)
Oligomeric/polymeric plasticizers	172	(1)
Epoxies	173	(1)
Extenders and Secondary Plasticizers	173	(1)
Health and Safety of Plasticizers	173	(1)
Reducing the Level of Plasticizers	174	(1)
Recent Developments	175	(1)
Commercial Trends	175	(2)
Modifying Processing Characteristics: Blowing Agents	177	(12)
The Function of Blowing Agents	177	(1)
Physical Blowing Agents	178	(1)
Chemical Blowing Agents (CBAs)	179	(1)
Structural Foams	180	(1)
In-house gas generation	181	(1)
Nucleating agents	181	(1)
Dispersion agents	181	(1)
Syntactic Structural Foam	181	(1)
Replacement of CFCs	182	(4)
Flexible foams	183	(1)
Rigid foams	183	(1)
Pentane	184	(1)
Expanded polystyrene	185	(1)
Economics of CFC replacement	186	(1)
Testing the insulation value of blowing agents	186	(1)
New Developments	186	(3)
Liquid carbon dioxide	187	(2)
Modifying Processing Characteristics: Modifiers and Processing Aids	189	(16)
Impact Modification	189	(3)
Impact modifiers for PVC	190	(1)
MBS modifiers	190	(1)
ABS modifiers	190	(1)
Acrylic modifiers	191	(1)
Elastomer Modification	192	(3)
Acrylic rubber	193	(1)
Styrenics	193	(1)
Polyolefins	194	(1)
Polybutene	195	(1)
Dimer Acids	195	(1)
Calcium Carbonate	196	(1)
Modification of CPEE Polymers	196	(1)
Modification of PMMA with Silicon and Phosphorus	197	(1)
Impact Modifiers for Thermosetting Resins	197	(1)
Processing Aids	198	(2)
Low-temperature flexibility	200	(1)
Clarifying/Nucleating Agents	200	(2)
Fluoropolymers	202	(1)
New Developments	203	(2)
Core-shell rubbers	203	(1)
Silicones	204	(1)
Modification of engineering thermoplastics	204	(1)
Modifying Processing Characteristics: Lubricants, Mould Release Agents, Anti-slip and Anti-blocking	205	(14)
Lubricants for Performance Improvement	205	(1)
Lubricants as Processing Aids	206	(7)
Metallic stearates	207	(1)
Hydrocarbons	207	(1)
Fatty acid amides and esters	208	(2)
Polyolefin waxes	210	(1)
Polyamides	210	(1)
Fluoropolymers	211	(1)
Silicones	212	(1)
Boron nitride	213	(1)
Combination and Modification	213	(1)
Release Agents for Thermosets	214	(2)
Anti-blocking, Anti-slip Additives	216	(1)
New Developments	216	(3)
Other Types of Additive: Miscellaneous Additives	219	(12)
Anti-bacterials and Biocides	219	(2)
Anti-allergy agent	221	(1)
Degradation Additives	221	(1)
Shrinkage Modifiers, Low-profile Additives	222	(1)
Improved Barrier Properties	222	(3)
Gas barrier coating	223	(1)
Resorcinol additives	223	(1)
Plasma technology	224	(1)
Oxygen absorption in food packaging	224	(1)
Hard Coatings	225	(1)
Thermal Insulation	225	(1)
Fragrance	226	(1)
PVC Matting Agent	226	(1)
Anti-fogging	226	(1)
Acoustic Insulation	227	(1)
Surfactants, Foam Control Additives	228	(1)
Mould Treatment Agents	229	(2)
Other Types of Additive: Additives for Rubber	231	(6)
Guidance on Safety	233	(1)
New Developments	233	(4)
Silica	233	(4)
Other Types of Additive: Additives for Recycling	237	(8)
Stabilizing, Re-stabilizing	237	(1)
Stabilizers	238	(1)
Improvement of Properties	239	(1)
Fibres/compatibilizers/impact modifiers	239	(1)
Desiccants	239	(1)
PE/PVC Compatibilizing	240	(1)
Melt Flow/Viscosity Modification	240	(1)
Additives for Identification of Plastics	241	(3)
Equipment for Recycling	244	(1)
Background Information: Equipment - Mixing, Compounding, and Dosing	245	(12)
Incorporation of Additives	245	(1)
Mixing Thermosets	246	(1)
Mixing Thermoplastics	247	(5)
Dry mixers	247	(1)
Calendering	248	(1)
Extrusion compounding	248	(1)
Compounding mineral fillers	249	(1)
Fine talc masterbatch	249	(1)
Single-and twin-screw extruders	250	(1)
Adjustable screw geometry	251	(1)
Colour Dosing	252	(1)
Recent Developments	253	(4)
Background Information: Health and Safety	257	(12)
Hazards by Additive	257	(3)
Carbon black	257	(1)
Titanium dioxide	258	(1)
Flame retardants	259	(1)
Glass fibre	259	(1)
Styrene monomer	259	(1)
Isocyanates	260	(1)
Hazards During Production, Storage, and Transportation (Workers)	260	(2)
Fire/explosion	261	(1)
Emissions	261	(1)
Skin/body contact	261	(1)
Dust	262	(1)
Hazards During Use (Direct Consumer and General Public)	262	(4)
Toxicity - food contact	263	(1)
Flame retardants	263	(1)
Plasticizers	264	(2)
Hazards During Disposal (Workers and General Public)	266	(1)
Landfill - heavy metals	266	(1)
Incineration	267	(1)
Health and Safety at the Workplace: Some Guidelines	267	(1)
Reduction of emissions at the workplace	268	(1)
New Developments: Solvents	268	(1)
Background Information: Legislation and Testing	269	(26)
Blowing Agents	269	(1)
Flame Retardants	269	(2)
Halogenated and brominated flame retardants	271	(1)
Heavy Metals/Cadmium Pigments	271	(1)
Plasticizers	272	(1)
Food Packaging	273	(1)
Migration Levels	274	(2)
Moves to Establish a Threshold of Regulatory Concern (TRC)	276	(1)
US history	276	(1)
European history	276	(1)
The User's Viewpoint	277	(1)
Medical Products and Packaging	277	(1)
Waste and Recycling	277	(2)
Packaging	278	(1)
Electrical and electronics	278	(1)
Automobiles	279	(1)
Physical Testing	279	(15)
Mechanical Tests	280	(1)
Tensile strength and modulus	280	(1)
Flexural strength and modulus (ISO 178 and ISO 3597)	280	(1)
Compressive strength (ISO 3604)	280	(1)
Shear strength	281	(1)
Impact strength	281	(1)
Thermal testing	282	(1)
Heat stability	282	(1)
Light stability	283	(1)
Electrical properties	283	(1)
Surface and volume resistivity	283	(1)
Surface resistivity	283	(1)
Electrostatic discharge	284	(1)
Static decay	284	(1)
Flammability	284	(2)
Heat release	286	(1)
Ease of ignition	286	(1)
Calorific value: ISO 1716-calorific value of materials	286	(1)
Flame spread	286	(1)
Smoke tests	287	(1)
AS 1530: Part 3 - test for early fire hazard properties of materials	288	(1)
DIN 4102 Part 1 - B1 - Brandschacht test	288	(1)
VDE 0472 Part 804	288	(1)
FAR Part 25: Federal Aviation Regulations for materials used in aircraft	288	(1)
Fire tests for building materials	288	(1)
Combustibility	289	(1)
Floor covering	290	(2)
New developments	292	(1)
Analysis	292	(1)
Surface quality tests	292	(1)
Barcol hardness test	292	(1)
Acetone sensitivity	293	(1)
Surface analysis	293	(1)
Colour testing	293	(1)
Colour stability	294	(1)
Database	294	(1)
Appendix A: Conversion Tables	295	(4)
Appendix B	299	(8)
Technical Terms	299	(3)
Standards and Testing Institutions	302	(1)
Recommended Books and Journals	303	(4)
Manufacturers' handbooks	303	(1)
Journals covering additives for plastics and rubber	304	(3)
Appendix C: Standard Abbreviations for Plastics and Elastomers	307	(4)
Appendix D: Trade Names	311	(16)
Appendix E: Directories	327	(42)
Directory of Suppliers	327	(37)
Industry Associations and Federations	364	(5)
Data Sheets	369	(76)
Fillers and extenders	369	(17)
Reinforcements, fibrous and microspheres	386	(6)
Pigments, colorants, whites, blacks	392	(7)
Antioxidants and stabilizers: heat and light	399	(6)
Flame retardants	405	(9)
Antistatics and conductive additives	414	(3)
Curing, cross-linking agents	417	(3)
Property modifiers, processing aids	420	(3)
Plasticizers	423	(7)
Blowing Agents, Dispersants, Miscellaneous Additives	428	(2)
Lubricants, release agents, slip/anti-block	430	(15)
Editorial Index	445	(26)
Index of Advertisers	471