Aerodynamics for Engineering Students

by Houghton; Carpenter

• ISBN13: 9780750651110
• ISBN10: 0750651113
• Edition: 5th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2003-03-17
• Publisher: Elsevier Science

Summary

Already established as the leading course text on aerodynamics, Aerodynamics for Engineering Students has been revised to include the latest developments in flow control and boundary layers, and their influence on modern wing design, as well as introducing recent advances in the understanding of fundamental fluid dynamics. Computational methods have been expanded and updated to reflect the modern approaches to aerodynamic design and research in the aeronautical industry and elsewhere, and the structure of the text has been developed to reflect current course requirements. The book is designed to be accessible and practical. Theory is developed logically within each chapter with notation, symbols and units well defined throughout, and the text is fully illustrated with worked examples and exercises.

Table of Contents

Preface	xiii
Basic concepts and definitions	1	(51)
Preamble	1	(1)
Units and dimensions	1	(3)
Fundamental dimensions and units	2	(1)
Fractions and multiples	2	(1)
Units of other physical quantities	3	(1)
Imperial units	4	(1)
Relevant properties	4	(11)
Forms of matter	4	(1)
Fluids	5	(1)
Pressure	5	(3)
Temperature	8	(1)
Density	8	(1)
Viscosity	8	(2)
Speed of sound and bulk elasticity	10	(1)
Thermodynamic properties	11	(4)
Aeronautical definitions	15	(4)
Wing geometry	15	(2)
Aerofoil geometry	17	(2)
Dimensional analysis	19	(7)
Fundamental principles	19	(3)
Dimensional analysis applied to aerodynamic force	22	(4)
Basic aerodynamics	26	(26)
Aerodynamic force and moment	26	(2)
Force and moment coefficients	28	(1)
Pressure distribution on an aerofoil	29	(1)
Pitching moment	30	(5)
Types of drag	35	(3)
Estimation of the coefficients of lift, drag and pitching moment from the pressure distribution	38	(3)
Induced drag	41	(3)
Lift-dependent drag	44	(1)
Aerofoil characteristics	44	(6)
Exercises	50	(2)
Governing equations of fluid mechanics	52	(52)
Preamble	52	(1)
Introduction	52	(4)
Air flow	53	(1)
A comparison of steady and unsteady flow	54	(2)
One-dimensional flow: the basic equations	56	(6)
One-dimensional flow: the basic equations of conservation	56	(6)
Comments on the momentum and energy equations	62	(1)
The measurement of air speed	62	(6)
The Pitot-static tube	62	(2)
The pressure coefficient	64	(1)
The air-speed indicator: indicated and equivalent air speeds	64	(2)
The incompressibility assumption	66	(2)
Two-dimensional flow	68	(5)
Component velocities	68	(3)
The equation of continuity or conservation of mass	71	(1)
The equation of continuity in polar coordinates	72	(1)
The stream function and streamline	73	(5)
The stream function ψ	73	(2)
The streamline	75	(1)
Velocity components in terms of ψ	76	(2)
The momentum equation	78	(5)
The Euler equations	83	(1)
Rates of strain, rotational flow and vorticity	83	(6)
Distortion of fluid element in flow field	83	(1)
Rate of shear strain	84	(1)
Rate of direct strain	85	(1)
Vorticity	86	(1)
Vorticity in polar coordinates	86	(1)
Rotational and irrotational flow	87	(1)
Circulation	87	(2)
The Navier--Stokes equations	89	(2)
Relationship between rates of strain and viscous stresses	89	(2)
The derivation of the Navier--Stokes equations	91	(1)
Properties of the Navier--Stokes equations	91	(4)
Exact solutions of the Navier--Stokes equations	95	(9)
Couette flow--simple shear flow	95	(1)
Plane Poiseuille flow -- pressure-driven channel flow	96	(1)
Hiemenz flow -- two-dimensional stagnation-point flow	97	(4)
Exercises	101	(3)
Potential flow	104	(55)
Preamble	104	(1)
Introduction	104	(5)
The velocity potential	105	(1)
The equipotential	106	(1)
Velocity components in terms of φ	107	(2)
Laplace's equation	109	(1)
Standard flows in terms of ψ and φ	110	(27)
Two-dimensional flow from a source (or towards a sink)	110	(2)
Line (point) vortex	112	(2)
Uniform flow	114	(4)
Solid boundaries and image systems	118	(1)
A source in a uniform horizontal stream	119	(3)
Source--sink pair	122	(3)
A source set upstream of an equal sink in a uniform stream	125	(1)
Doublet	126	(3)
Flow around a circular cylinder given by a doublet in a uniform horizontal flow	129	(4)
A spinning cylinder in a uniform flow	133	(3)
Bernoulli's equation for rotational flow	136	(1)
Axisymmetric flows (inviscid and incompressible flows)	137	(10)
Cylindrical coordinate system	137	(1)
Spherical coordinates	138	(1)
Axisymmetric flow from a point source (or towards a point sink)	139	(1)
Point source and sink in a uniform axisymmetric flow	140	(2)
The point doublet and the potential flow around a sphere	142	(2)
Flow around slender bodies	144	(3)
Computational (panel) methods	147	(12)
A computational routine in FORTRAN 77	152	(3)
Exercises	155	(4)
Two-dimensional wing theory	159	(51)
Preamble	159	(1)
Introduction	159	(10)
The Kutta condition	160	(2)
Circulation and vorticity	162	(5)
Circulation and lift (Kutta--Zhukovsky theorem)	167	(2)
The development of aerofoil theory	169	(2)
The general thin aerofoil theory	171	(5)
The solution of the general equation	176	(6)
The thin symmetrical flat plate aerofoil	177	(1)
The general thin aerofoil section	178	(4)
The flapped aerofoil	182	(3)
The hinge moment coefficient	184	(1)
The jet flap	185	(1)
The normal force and pitching moment derivatives due to pitching	186	(4)
(Zq)(Mq) wing contributions	186	(4)
Particular camber lines	190	(6)
Cubic camber lines	190	(3)
The NACA four-digit wing sections	193	(3)
Thickness problem for thin-aerofoil theory	196	(4)
The thickness problem for thin aerofoils	197	(3)
Computational (panel) methods for two-dimensional lifting flows	200	(10)
Exercises	207	(3)
Finite wing theory	210	(63)
Preamble	210	(1)
The vortex system	211	(3)
The starting vortex	211	(1)
The trailing vortex system	212	(1)
The bound vortex system	213	(1)
The horseshoe vortex	213	(1)
Laws of vortex motion	214	(8)
Helmholtz's theorems	215	(1)
The Biot--Savart law	216	(4)
Variation of velocity in vortex flow	220	(2)
The simplified horseshoe vortex	222	(5)
Formation flying effects	223	(1)
Influence of the downwash on the tailplane	224	(2)
Ground effects	226	(1)
Vortex sheets	227	(7)
The use of vortex sheets to model the lifting effects of a wing	229	(5)
Relationship between spanwise loading and trailing vorticity	234	(15)
Induced velocity (downwash)	234	(3)
The consequences of downwash -- trailing vortex drag	237	(3)
The characteristics of a simple symmetric loading -- elliptic distribution	240	(3)
The general (series) distribution of lift	243	(2)
Aerodynamic characteristics for symmetrical general loading	245	(4)
Determination of the load distribution on a given wing	249	(8)
The general theory for wings of high aspect ratio	249	(2)
General solution of Prandtl's integral equation	251	(4)
Load distribution for minimum drag	255	(2)
Swept and delta wings	257	(12)
Yawed wings of infinite span	257	(2)
Swept wings of finite span	259	(2)
Wings of small aspect ratio	261	(8)
Computational (panel) methods for wings	269	(4)
Exercises	270	(3)
Compressible flow	273	(100)
Preamble	273	(1)
Introduction	274	(1)
Isentropic one-dimensional flow	275	(19)
Pressure, density and temperature ratios along a streamline in isentropic flow	278	(3)
The ratio of areas at different sections of the stream tube in isentropic flow	281	(2)
Velocity along an isentropic stream tube	283	(1)
Variation of mass flow with pressure	284	(10)
One-dimensional flow: weak waves	294	(2)
The speed of sound (acoustic speed)	295	(1)
One-dimensional flow: plane normal shock waves	296	(11)
One-dimensional properties of normal shock waves	297	(1)
Pressure--density relations across the shock	298	(1)
Static pressure jump across a normal shock	299	(1)
Density jump across the normal shock	300	(1)
Temperature rise across the normal shock	300	(1)
Entropy change across the normal shock	301	(1)
Mach number change across the normal shock	301	(1)
Velocity change across the normal shock	302	(1)
Total pressure change across the normal shock	303	(3)
Pitot tube equation	306	(1)
Mach waves and shock waves in two-dimensional flow	307	(1)
Mach waves	307	(11)
Mach wave reflection	315	(2)
Mach wave interference	317	(1)
Shock waves	318	(13)
Plane oblique shock relations	319	(4)
The shock polar	323	(6)
Two-dimensional supersonic flow past a wedge	329	(2)
Wings in compressible flow	331	(42)
Transonic flow, the critical Mach number	331	(3)
Subcritical flow, small perturbation theory (Prandtl--Glauert rule)	334	(13)
Supersonic linearized theory (Ackeret's rule)	347	(20)
Other aspects of supersonic wings	367	(5)
Exercises	372	(1)
Viscous flow and boundary layers	373	(112)
Preamble	373	(1)
Introduction	373	(2)
The development of the boundary layer	375	(5)
Velocity profile	375	(2)
Boundary-layer thickness	377	(1)
Non-dimensional profile	377	(1)
Laminar and turbulent flows	377	(1)
Growth along a flat surface	378	(1)
Effects of an external pressure gradient	379	(1)
The boundary-layer equations	380	(16)
Derivation of the laminar boundary-layer equations	381	(4)
Various definitions of boundary-layer thickness	385	(2)
Skin friction drag	387	(3)
Solution of the boundary-layer equations for a flat plate	390	(5)
Solution for the general case	395	(1)
Boundary-layer separation	396	(3)
Separation bubbles	398	(1)
Flow past cylinders and spheres	399	(9)
Turbulence spheres	405	(1)
Golf balls	406	(1)
Cricket balls	407	(1)
The momentum integral equation	408	(6)
An approximate velocity profile for the laminar boundary layer	411	(3)
Approximate methods for a boundary layer on a flat plate with zero pressure gradient	414	(14)
Simplified form of the momentum integral equation	415	(1)
Rate of growth of a laminar boundary layer on a flat plate	415	(1)
Drag coefficient for a flat plate of streamwise length L with wholly laminar boundary layer	416	(1)
Turbulent velocity profile	416	(2)
Rate of growth of a turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate	418	(3)
Drag coefficient for a flat plate with wholly turbulent boundary layer	421	(1)
Conditions at transition	422	(1)
Mixed boundary layer flow on a flat plate with zero pressure gradient	423	(5)
Additional examples of the application of the momentum integral equation	428	(3)
Laminar-turbulent transition	431	(6)
The physics of turbulent boundary layers	437	(18)
Reynolds averaging and turbulent stress	438	(2)
Boundary-layer equations for turbulent flows	440	(1)
Eddy viscosity	440	(3)
Prandtl's mixing-length theory of turbulence	443	(1)
Regimes of turbulent wall flow	444	(3)
Formulae for local skin-friction coefficient and drag	447	(1)
Distribution of Reynolds stresses and turbulent kinetic energy across the boundary layer	448	(1)
Turbulence structure in the near-wall region	449	(6)
Computational methods	455	(13)
Methods based on the momentum integral equation	455	(3)
Transition prediction	458	(1)
Computational solution of the laminar boundary-layer equations	459	(4)
Computational solution of turbulent boundary layers	463	(1)
Zero-equation methods	464	(1)
The k--ε method -- A typical two-equation method	465	(2)
Large-eddy simulation	467	(1)
Estimation of profile drag from velocity profile in wake	468	(5)
The momentum integral expression for the drag of a two-dimensional body	469	(1)
B.M. Jones' wake traverse method for determining profile drag	470	(1)
Growth rate of two-dimensional wake, using the general momentum integral equation	471	(2)
Some boundary-layer effects in supersonic flow	473	(12)
Near-normal shock interaction with laminar boundary layer	474	(3)
Near-normal shock interaction with turbulent boundary layer	477	(1)
Shock-wave/boundary-layer interaction in supersonic flow	477	(5)
Exercises	482	(3)
Flow control and wing design	485	(42)
Preamble	485	(1)
Introduction	485	(1)
Maximizing lift for single-element aerofoils	486	(6)
Multi-element aerofoils	492	(13)
The slat effect	495	(1)
The vane effect	496	(1)
Off-the-surface recovery	496	(2)
Fresh boundary-layer effect	498	(1)
Use of multi-element aerofoils on racing cars	498	(2)
Gurney flaps	500	(4)
Movable flaps: artificial bird feathers	504	(1)
Boundary layer control for the prevention of separation	505	(9)
Boundary-layer suction	505	(2)
Control by tangential blowing	507	(5)
Other methods of separation control	512	(2)
Reduction of skin-friction drag	514	(8)
Laminar flow control by boundary-layer suction	515	(2)
Compliant walls: artificial dolphin skins	517	(3)
Riblets	520	(2)
Reduction of form drag	522	(1)
Reduction of induced drag	522	(3)
Reduction of wave drag	525	(2)
Propellers and propulsion	527	(36)
Preamble	527	(1)
Froude's momentum theory of propulsion	527	(6)
Airscrew coefficients	533	(5)
Thrust coefficient	533	(1)
Torque coefficient	534	(1)
Efficiency	535	(1)
Power coefficient	535	(1)
Activity factor	535	(3)
Airscrew pitch	538	(3)
Geometric pitch	539	(1)
Experimental mean pitch	539	(1)
Effect of geometric pitch on airscrew performance	539	(2)
Blade element theory	541	(8)
The vortex system of an airscrew	541	(1)
The performance of a blade element	542	(7)
The momentum theory applied to the helicopter rotor	549	(3)
The actuator disc in hovering flight	549	(1)
Vertical climbing flight	550	(1)
Slow, powered, descending flight	550	(1)
Translational helicopter flight	551	(1)
The rocket motor	552	(6)
The free motion of a rocket-propelled body	554	(4)
The hovercraft	558	(5)
Exercises	561	(2)
Appendix 1: symbols and notation	563	(4)
Appendix 2: the international standard atmosphere	567	(2)
Appendix 3: a solution of integrals of the type of Glauert's integral	569	(3)
Appendix 4: conversion of imperial units to systeme international (SI) units	572	(2)
Bibliography	574	(3)
Index	577