Aerosol Processing of Materials

by Kodas, Toivo T.; Hampden-Smith, Mark J.

• ISBN13: 9780471246695
• ISBN10: 0471246697
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1998-12-28
• Publisher: Wiley-VCH

Summary

Unifying a wide range of materials synthesis techniques, 'Aerosol Processing of Materials' provides a detailed overview of the production of materials by the use of gas phase processes. Aerosol processes are responsible for the production of many of today's most advanced materials, especially in the semiconductor, optical waveguide, and thin film industries. Many of the unique properties of nanophase materials and composites are only possible through the application of acrosol in materials processing. This book describes various types of aerosol processes and the role of aerosols in materials processing. The work presents the advantages and disadvantages of each process in terms of cost, complexity, purity, and materials properties; and compares these factor to alternative methods of powder and film formation. The title provides the theory needed to understand and advance the fundamentals of this rapidly expanding material manufacturing processes. Written by well-respected leaders in the field, the book illuminates the roles of particle size characterization and size distributions; heat, mass, and momentum transfer; particle transport; condensation and evaporation; and coagulation and coalescence. 'Aerosol Processing of Materials' provides the most up-to-date and comprehensive single source of information available on gas-to-particle powder formation; liquid/solid-to-solid powder formation; film formation; reactor design; and particle/film characterization.

Author Biography

TOIVO T. KODAS and MARK HAMPDEN-SMITH are full professors in the Departments of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, respectively, at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque. They are also the founders of the companies Nanochem Research, Inc./ Superior MicroPowders, LLC that are currently commercializing several of the processes discussed in the book. Kodas and Hampden-Smith have previously collaborated to author and coedit Chemistry of Metals CVD, published by Wiley-VCH in 1994. Professor Hampden-Smith has coedited Chemistry of Advanced Materials: An Overview, a 1998 Wiley-VCH publication.

Table of Contents

Preface	xvii
Acknowledgments	xix
Nomenclature	xxi
Introduction	1	(18)
Background	1	(6)
Definitions	7	(1)
Important Physicochemical Phenomena	8	(3)
Types of Aerosol Processes	11	(3)
Advantages and Disadvantages of Aerosol Processes	14	(2)
Recommended Books by Topic	16	(2)
References	18	(1)
Particle Size Distribution and Physical and Chemical Characteristics	19	(26)
Introduction	19	(1)
Mean Free Path of the Gas	20	(3)
Mass and Particle Concentration	23	(1)
Particle Size Distribution	24	(8)
Introduction	24	(4)
Average Particle Size	28	(2)
Spread of the Distribution	30	(1)
Moments of Particle Size Distribution	31	(1)
Density and Surface Area	32	(1)
Particle Morphology	33	(5)
Chemical and Phase Composition	38	(3)
Crystallinity	41	(2)
References	43	(2)
Particle Transport	45	(30)
Introduction	45	(1)
Diffusion	45	(7)
Wall Losses by Diffusion	50	(2)
Transport Coefficient Approach to Diffusional Deposition of Particles	52	(2)
Diffusion Equation Approach to Particle Deposition	54	(1)
Particle Motion in External Force Fields	55	(10)
Sedimentation in a Gravitational Field	56	(3)
Motion of Charged Particles in Electric Fields	59	(3)
Particle Motion in Thermal Gradients	62	(3)
Impaction	65	(6)
Particle Deposition by Impaction from Aerosol Jets	67	(2)
Particle Deposition in Tube Bends	69	(1)
Turbulent Deposition in Pipe Flows	70	(1)
Photophoresis and Radiometry	71	(1)
Structure of Deposits	71	(1)
References	72	(3)
Particle Growth, Evaporation, and Nucleation	75	(30)
Introduction	75	(1)
Qualitative Description of Particle Growth	76	(1)
Particle Growth: Free-Molecule and Transition Regimes	77	(4)
Transport: Continuum Regime	81	(2)
Droplet Evaporation: Characteristic Time for Gas-Phase Diffusion to a Particle	83	(1)
Evaporation from Solution Droplets	84	(1)
Droplet Evaporation during Materials Processing	85	(4)
Chemical Reactions: Surface-Reaction-Limited Growth	89	(3)
Chemical Reactions: Volume-Reaction-Limited Growth	92	(1)
Nucleation	93	(9)
Classical Homogeneous Nucleation	96	(1)
Collision-Controlled Nucleation	97	(3)
Chemical Nucleation	100	(1)
Materials That Sublime Dissociatively	101	(1)
References	102	(3)
Collision and Coalescence	105	(24)
Introduction	105	(2)
Brownian Coagulation	107	(2)
Characteristic Time for Coagulation	109	(1)
Shear-Induced and Turbulent Coagulation	110	(2)
Coagulation by Electric Forces	112	(1)
Self-Preserving Size Distributions: Uncharged Spherical Particles	113	(6)
Self-Preserving Size Distributions: Uncharged Agglomerates	119	(3)
Self-Preserving Size Distributions: Charged Particles	122	(2)
Coalescence of Particles	124	(3)
References	127	(2)
Intraparticle Transport Processes	129	(17)
Introduction	129	(1)
Solid-State and Liquid-Phase Diffusion	130	(8)
Introduction	130	(2)
Theory	132	(3)
Liquid Phase	135	(2)
Solid State	137	(1)
Heat Transfer within Particles	138	(2)
Gas--Solid Reactions	140	(3)
Introduction	140	(1)
Shrinking-Core Model	141	(2)
Gas--Liquid Reactions	143	(1)
References	144	(2)
Models Based on the General Dynamic Equation	146	(20)
Introduction	146	(1)
General Dynamic Equation	147	(1)
Discrete Models	148	(2)
Sectional Models	150	(3)
Lognormal and Other Moment Models	153	(4)
Monodisperse with Sintering	157	(2)
Comparison of Models	159	(1)
Modeling of Particle Deposition Processes	159	(4)
References	163	(3)
Chemistry	166	(64)
Introduction	166	(6)
General Features of Metal-Containing Compounds	172	(6)
Selection of Chemical Reagents as Precursors: Important Chemical Properties Related to Aerosol Processing	178	(8)
Solubility	179	(3)
Volatility	182	(3)
Reactivity	185	(1)
Thermally Induced Reactions of Metal-Containing Compounds	186	(18)
Thermal Decomposition of Inorganic Compounds	186	(1)
Metal Nitrates	187	(3)
Metal Carbonates	190	(2)
Metal Sulfates	192	(2)
Metal Halides	194	(5)
Thermal Decomposition of Metal-Organic Compounds	199	(1)
Metal Carboxylates	199	(1)
Metal Alkoxides	199	(4)
Metal Diketonates	203	(1)
Metal Amides	203	(1)
Other Derivatives	204	(1)
Thermal Decomposition of Organometallic Compounds	204	(1)
Photo-Induced Reactions	204	(2)
Plasma-Induced Reactions	206	(4)
Flame-Induced Reactions	210	(4)
Single-Source Precursors	214	(4)
Surface Processes	218	(3)
Solid-State Processes: Crystallization, Densification, Porosity, and Surface Properties	221	(4)
References	225	(5)
Characteristics of Nanostructured Materials	230	(36)
Introduction	230	(8)
Properties of Nanostructured Materials	238	(22)
Electronic Properties	239	(3)
Optical Properties	242	(2)
Magnetic Properties	244	(2)
Compositional and Phase Behavior	246	(1)
Crystal Lattice Distortions	246	(1)
Compositional Inhomogeneities	247	(2)
Phase Transitions and Temperatures	249	(1)
Vapor Pressure	250	(1)
Internal Pressure	251	(1)
Melting Point	252	(1)
Solubility	253	(1)
Mechanical Properties of Consolidated Nanoparticles	254	(4)
Chemical Reactivity	258	(2)
Applications of Nanostructured Materials	260	(2)
Current Applications	261	(1)
Future Applications	262	(1)
References	262	(4)
Overall Qualitative Behavior of Gas-to-Particle Conversion Processes	266	(27)
Introduction	266	(3)
Modes of Operation for Single-Component Systems	269	(10)
Nucleation-Coagulation	270	(5)
Nucleation-Condensation	275	(4)
Modes of Operation for Multicomponent Systems	279	(11)
Generation of Multicomponent Materials Using Two or More Volatile Species	279	(6)
Strategies for Avoiding Segregation in Multicomponent Materials	285	(3)
Strategies for Producing Composite Particles	288	(1)
Strategies for Producing Coated Particles	288	(2)
Fluidized Beds	290	(1)
References	291	(2)
Technology of Gas-to-Particle Conversion	293	(87)
Introduction	293	(3)
Comparison of Different Gas-to-Particle Conversion Routes and Their Comparison with Liquid-to-Solid and Solid-to-Solid Conversion Routes	296	(2)
Design	298	(1)
Chemical Routes: Tubular Flow Reactors	299	(7)
Introduction	299	(3)
Precursors and Products	302	(1)
Experimental Considerations	303	(3)
Theory	306	(1)
Chemical Routes: Flame Reactors	306	(5)
Introduction	306	(2)
Precursors and Products	308	(1)
Experimental Considerations	309	(1)
Theory	310	(1)
Chemical Routes: Laser-Driven Photothermal Reactors	311	(4)
Introduction	311	(2)
Precursors and Products	313	(1)
Experimental Details	314	(1)
Theory	315	(1)
Chemical Routes: Laser-Driven Photochemical Reactors	315	(1)
Introduction	315	(1)
Precursors and Products	315	(1)
Experimental Considerations	316	(1)
Theory	316	(1)
Chemical Routes: Thermal Plasma Reactors	316	(7)
Introduction	316	(2)
Precursors and Products	318	(1)
Experimental Considerations	318	(3)
Theory	321	(2)
Chemical Routes: Low-Temperature Plasma Reactors	323	(2)
Introduction	323	(1)
Precursors and Products	324	(1)
Experimental Considerations	324	(1)
Theory	324	(1)
Chemical Processes: Fluidized Beds	325	(2)
Introduction	325	(1)
Precursors and Products	326	(1)
Experimental Considerations	326	(1)
Theory	327	(1)
Physical Processes: Free Convective Plumes and Tubular Flow Systems	327	(7)
Introduction	327	(2)
Precursors and Products	329	(1)
Experimental Considerations	330	(2)
Theory	332	(2)
Physical Processes: Nozzle Expansion	334	(2)
Introduction	334	(1)
Precursors and Products	335	(1)
Experimental Considerations	335	(1)
Theory	336	(1)
Physical Processes: Laser Ablation	336	(2)
Introduction	336	(1)
Precursors and Products	337	(1)
Experimental Considerations	338	(1)
Theory	338	(1)
Physical Processes: Supercritical Spraying	338	(4)
Introduction	338	(1)
Precursors and Products	339	(1)
Experimental Considerations	340	(1)
Theory	340	(2)
Hybrid Processes: Evaporation-Condensation-Reaction	342	(3)
Introduction	342	(1)
Precursors and Products	343	(1)
Experimental Considerations	343	(1)
Theory	344	(1)
References	345	(7)
Tables	352	(28)
Overall Qualitative Behavior of Liquid-to-Solid and Solid-to-Solid Conversion Processes	380	(56)
Introduction	380	(1)
Overview of Basic Physicochemical Phenomena	381	(6)
Droplet Formation	384	(1)
Processes within Droplets	384	(1)
Particles Containing Solids and Liquids	384	(1)
Dried Particles	385	(1)
Product Particles	386	(1)
Aerosol Dynamics	386	(1)
Reactor-scale Phenomena	386	(1)
Individual Physical and Chemical Phenomena	387	(16)
Droplet Generation	387	(2)
Heat Transfer	389	(3)
Solvent Transport	392	(4)
Solute Transport in Droplets	396	(3)
Solute Precipitation in Droplets	399	(1)
Transport of Gaseous Species in Solid Particles	400	(2)
Intraparticle Reaction	402	(1)
Overall Qualitative Behavior of Liquid-to-Solid and Solid-to-Solid Conversion Processes	403	(15)
Droplet Evaporation in Flow Systems	403	(7)
Influence of Solvent Evaporation on Particle Morphology	410	(5)
Influence of Precursor Characteristics on Particle Morphology	415	(1)
Influence of Intraparticle Reaction on Particle Morphology	416	(2)
Modes of Reactor Behavior	418	(14)
Intraparticle Reaction with No Volatile Components	419	(2)
Intraparticle Reaction with Evaporation of Volatile Reactants	421	(1)
Intraparticle Reaction with Volatile Intermediates or Products	421	(6)
New-Particle Formation with a Single Volatile Component	427	(1)
Spray Combustion Synthesis	427	(2)
Aerosol-Phase Densification	429	(3)
References	432	(4)
Technology: Liquid-to-Solid and Solid-to-Solid Conversion	436	(56)
Liquid-to-Solid and Solid-to-Solid Conversion	436	(4)
Introduction	436	(3)
Commercial Potential	439	(1)
Spray Pyrolysis	440	(20)
Introduction	440	(7)
Precursors and Products	447	(1)
Metal-Oxide Powders	448	(3)
Nonoxide Powders	451	(1)
Metal Powders	452	(1)
Composite Powders	452	(3)
Coated Powders	455	(2)
Influence of Precursor Characteristics on Particle Morphology	457	(1)
Conditions Conducive to the Formation of Solid Particles	458	(2)
Spray-Drying	460	(3)
Freeze-Drying	463	(1)
Spray-Combustion Synthesis	464	(2)
Flame Spray Pyrolysis	466	(2)
Melt Atomization	468	(2)
Powder Synthesis and Densification in Thermal Plasmas	470	(1)
Thermal-Plasma Densification	470	(1)
Thermal-Plasma Synthesis of Powders	470	(1)
References	470	(4)
Tables	474	(18)
Film Formation	492	(41)
Introduction	492	(2)
Film Characteristics	494	(2)
Deposition or Etching Using Nonevaporating Particles Formed Ex Situ	496	(3)
Deposition or Etching Using Evaporating Particles with Involatile Reactants Formed Ex Situ	499	(4)
Aerosol-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition	503	(9)
Deposition Using Droplets or Solid Particles Formed In Situ	512	(4)
Simultaneous Particle and Vapor Deposition	516	(4)
Particle Formation during CVD	520	(8)
Particle Formation during Low-Pressure Plasma Deposition and Etching	528	(3)
References	531	(2)
Film Generation Technologies	533	(69)
Introduction	533	(1)
Liquid-Phase Precursors	533	(21)
Droplet Deposition (Film Pyrolysis)	533	(1)
Introduction	533	(2)
Precursors and Products	535	(1)
Experimental Details	536	(1)
Theory	537	(1)
Aerosol-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition	537	(1)
Introduction	537	(3)
Precursors and Products	540	(1)
Experimental Details	540	(2)
Theory	542	(1)
Supercritical Expansion of Solutions	543	(1)
Introduction	543	(1)
Precursors and Products	543	(1)
Experimental Details	544	(1)
Theory	545	(1)
Molten Droplet Deposition	545	(1)
Introduction	545	(3)
Precursors and Products	548	(1)
Experimental Details	548	(1)
Theory	549	(1)
Aerosol Jet Etching, Aerosol Cleaning, and Related Processes	550	(1)
Introduction	550	(1)
Precursors and Products	551	(1)
Experimental Details	551	(1)
Theory	552	(2)
Solid-Particle Deposition	554	(15)
Introduction	554	(1)
Ionized Cluster Beam Deposition	554	(1)
Introduction	554	(2)
Precursors and Products	556	(1)
Experimental Details	556	(2)
Theory	558	(1)
Neutral Cluster Beam	559	(1)
Inertial Particle Deposition	560	(1)
Introduction	560	(1)
Precursors and Products	561	(1)
Experimental Details	561	(1)
Theory	561	(1)
Thermophoretic Aerosol Deposition	562	(1)
Introduction	562	(1)
Precursors and Products	563	(1)
Experimental Details	563	(1)
Theory	563	(1)
Thermophoretic Aerosol Deposition: Optical Fibers	564	(1)
Introduction	564	(2)
Precursors and Products	566	(1)
Experimental Details	566	(1)
Theory	566	(1)
Deposition of Charged Solid Particles in Electric Fields	567	(2)
Simultaneous Particle Deposition and CVD	569	(2)
Particle Formation during CVD	571	(3)
Introduction	571	(1)
Precursors and Products	572	(1)
Experimental Details	572	(1)
Theory	572	(2)
References	574	(3)
Tables	577	(25)
Aerosol Reactor Components	602	(27)
Introduction	602	(1)
Atomization	602	(11)
Introduction	602	(1)
Classification of Atomizers	603	(1)
Pressure and Two-Fluid Atomization	604	(2)
Ultrasonic Atomizers	606	(4)
Electrostatic Atomizers	610	(2)
Summary of Atomizer Characteristics	612	(1)
Dry Powder Feeders	613	(1)
Droplet Impactors and Virtual Impactors	614	(4)
Powder Collection: Filtration and Electrostatic Precipitators	618	(4)
Filtration	619	(1)
Cyclones	620	(1)
Settling Chambers	621	(1)
Electrostatic Precipitators	621	(1)
Volatile Reactant Delivery Systems	622	(4)
References	626	(3)
Measurement Techniques	629	(30)
Introduction	629	(1)
Particle Collection Methods	629	(3)
Physical Properties: Size and Morphology	632	(11)
Dry Methods: Sieving	633	(1)
Dry Methods: Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy	633	(2)
Liquid-Phase Methods: Light Scattering	635	(1)
Liquid-Phase Methods: Sedimentation Velocity	635	(1)
Liquid-Phase Methods: Assorted	636	(1)
Gas-Phase Methods: Condensation Particle Counter	637	(1)
Gas-Phase Methods: Differential-Mobility Particle Sizer and Electrical Aerosol Analyzer	638	(2)
Gas-Phase Methods: Single-Particle Optical Particle Counter	640	(1)
Gas-Phase Methods: Dynamic Light Scattering	641	(1)
Gas-Phase Methods: Assorted	641	(1)
Gas-Phase Methods: Multistage Impactors	641	(1)
Gas-Phase Methods: Virtual Impactors	642	(1)
Gas-Phase Methods: Cyclones	642	(1)
Gas-Phase Methods: Aerodynamic Particle Sizer	642	(1)
Physical Properties: Microstructure	643	(4)
Mercury Porosimetry	643	(1)
Surface Area	644	(1)
Density	645	(1)
Pellet Green Density	646	(1)
Tap Density	646	(1)
Transmission Electron Microscopy	646	(1)
Physical Properties: Phase Composition and Distribution	647	(1)
X-ray Diffraction	648	(1)
Transmission Electron Microscopy and Electron Diffraction	648	(1)
Chemical Composition: Bulk Materials	648	(3)
X-ray Fluorescence	649	(1)
Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy	649	(1)
Proton-induced X-ray Emission Spectroscopy	649	(1)
Nuclear Reaction Analysis	650	(1)
Emission and Absorption Spectroscopy	650	(1)
Combustion Elemental Analysis	650	(1)
Chemical Composition: Surface-Sensitive Methods	651	(3)
Auger Electron Spectroscopy	651	(1)
Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy	651	(2)
X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy	653	(1)
Mass Spectrometric Methods	654	(1)
Thermophysical and Thermochemical Analysis	654	(1)
Thermogravimetric Analysis	654	(1)
Differential Thermal Analysis and Differential Scanning Calorimetry	655	(1)
Dilatometry	655	(1)
Surface Properties	655	(1)
Assorted Methods	655	(1)
References	656	(3)
Index	659