The Aims of Argument: A Text and Reader

by Crusius, Timothy W.; Channell, Carolyn E.

• ISBN13: 9780072863420
• ISBN10: 0072863420
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2002-10-03
• Publisher: McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social Sciences/Languages

Summary

The Aims of Argument is a process-oriented introduction to argumentation with unique coverage of the aims, or purposes, of argument – to inquire, to convince, to persuade, and to mediate. In contrast to other approaches, the focus on aims provides rhetorical context that helps students write, as well as read, arguments.

Table of Contents

Preface	vii
Note to Students	xvii
About the Authors	xix
Part One Resources for Reading and Writing Arguments
Understanding Argument	3	(20)
What is Argument?	3	(1)
What is Rhetoric?	4	(2)
An Example of Argument	6	(5)
``You Also Have the Right to Tell a Bigot What You Think''	7	(1)
Leonard Pitts
Discussion of ``You Also Have the Right [. . .]''	8	(1)
Pitts's Reasoning	9	(1)
Other Appeals in Pitts's Argument	10	(1)
Four Criteria of Mature Reasoning	11	(4)
Mature Reasoners Are Well Informed	12	(1)
Mature Reasoners Are Self-Critical and Open to Constructive Criticism from Others	12	(1)
Mature Reasoners Argue with Their Audience or Readers in Mind	13	(1)
Mature Reasoners Know Their Arguments' Contexts	14	(1)
What Are the Aims of Argument?	15	(3)
Arguing to Inquire	16	(1)
Arguing to Convince	16	(1)
Arguing to Persuade	17	(1)
Arguing to Negotiate	17	(1)
Where Are the Aims of Argument Used?	18	(1)
A Good Tool for Understanding and Writing Arguments: The Writer's Notebook	18	(5)
Why Keep a Notebook?	19	(4)
Reading an Argument	23	(30)
The First Encounter: Seeing the Text in Context	25	(3)
Considering the Climate of Opinion	25	(1)
Considering the Rhetorical Context	26	(2)
An Argument for Critical Reading	28	(4)
``On Teenagers and Tattoos''	28	(4)
Andres Martin
The Second Encounter: Reading and Analyzing the Text	32	(10)
Wrestling with Difficult Passages	33	(1)
Unfamiliar Contexts	33	(1)
Contrasting Voices and Views	34	(1)
Allusions	34	(1)
Specialized Vocabulary	34	(1)
Missing Persons	35	(1)
Passive Voice	36	(1)
Using Paraphrase to Aid Comprehension	37	(1)
Analyzing the Reasoning of an Argument	38	(1)
Finding Parts	39	(1)
Using Context	40	(1)
Identifying the Claim and Reasons	40	(2)
The Third Encounter: Responding Critically to an Argument	42	(3)
Annotation Is Key	42	(2)
Sample Annotations	44	(1)
Writing Assignment: A Critical Response to a Single Argument	45	(1)
Student Sample Essay: Critical Response to a Single Argument	46	(7)
The Single Argument: France Borel, ``The Decorated Body''	46	(3)
A Sample Student Response: Katie Lahey, ``Analysis of `The Decorated Body'''	49	(4)
Analyzing Arguments: A Simplified Toulmin Method	53	(16)
A Preliminary Critical Reading	53	(3)
``Rising to the Occasion of Our Death''	53	(3)
William F. May
A Step-By-Step Demonstration of the Toulmin Method	56	(7)
Analyzing the Claim	56	(1)
Identify the Claim	56	(1)
Look for Qualifiers	56	(1)
Find the Exceptions	57	(1)
Summarize the Claim	57	(1)
Analyzing the Reasons	57	(1)
List the Reasons	57	(1)
Examine the Reasons	58	(1)
Analyzing the Evidence	59	(1)
List the Evidence	59	(1)
Examine the Evidence	59	(2)
Noting Refutations	61	(1)
Summarizing Your Analysis	61	(2)
Student Sample: An Argument for Analysis	63	(4)
``Capital Punishment: Society's Self-Defense''	63	(4)
Amber Young
A Final Note About Logical Analysis	67	(2)
Reading and Writing about Visual Arguments	69	(38)
Understanding Visual Arguments	70	(2)
``Reading'' Images	71	(1)
Five Common Types of Visual Argument	72	(28)
Advertisements	72	(4)
Editorial Cartoons	76	(1)
Public Sculpture	77	(3)
News Photographs	80	(2)
Graphics	82	(4)
``Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder''	86	(11)
Russell A. Barkley
Analyzing Barkley's Graphics	97	(3)
Writing Assignments	100	(7)
Assignment 1: Analyzing an Advertisement or Editorial Cartoon	100	(1)
Student Sample: Analysis of Visual Rhetoric	100	(1)
``A Mother's Treat''	100	(2)
Kelly Williams
Assignment 2: Using Visual Rhetoric to Promote Your School	102	(1)
Assignment 3: Analyzing Your Own Visual Rhetoric	103	(1)
Assignment 4: Writing to Convince	104	(1)
Assignment 5: Using Graphics to Supplement Your Own Writing or Other Texts	104	(3)
Writing Research-Based Arguments	107	(54)
Finding an Issue	108	(2)
Understand that an Issue Is More Than Just a Topic	108	(1)
Keep Abreast of Current Events and Research the News	108	(1)
Research Your Library's Periodicals Indexes	109	(1)
Inquire into the Issue	110	(1)
Finding Sources	110	(12)
Field Research	110	(1)
Observations	111	(1)
Questionnaires and Surveys	111	(1)
Interviews	112	(1)
Library and Online Research	113	(1)
Library of Congress Subject Headings	113	(2)
Your Library's Catalog	115	(1)
Indexes to Periodicals	115	(1)
Newspaper Indexes	115	(2)
Indexes to Magazines, Journals, and Other Materials	117	(1)
Reference Books	118	(1)
Bibliographies	119	(1)
Internet Research	119	(1)
The World Wide Web	120	(1)
GopherSpace	121	(1)
Listservs and Usenet Newsgroups	121	(1)
Evaluating Sources	122	(5)
Eliminate Inappropriate Sources	122	(1)
Carefully Record Complete Bibliographic Information	123	(1)
Read the Source Critically	124	(2)
Inquire into the Source	126	(1)
Consider How You Might Use the Source	126	(1)
Using Sources	127	(12)
Taking Notes	127	(1)
Paraphrasing	128	(3)
Summarizing	131	(1)
from The End of Life	132	(5)
James Rachels
Student Sample: A Summary	137	(1)
``Summary of Excerpt from The End of Life''	137	(1)
Patrick Pugh
Creating an Annotated Bibliography	138	(1)
Incorporating and Documenting Source Material in the Text of Your Argument	139	(5)
Different Styles of Documentation	139	(1)
Instructions for Using MLA and APA Styles	139	(1)
MLA Style	139	(1)
APA Style	140	(1)
Direct Quotations	140	(1)
MLA Style	141	(1)
APA Style	141	(1)
Altering Direct Quotations with Ellipses and Brackets	141	(1)
Using Block Quotations	141	(1)
Indirect Quotations	142	(1)
MLA Style	142	(1)
APA Style	142	(1)
In-Text References to Electronic Sources	143	(1)
Creating Works-Cited and Reference Lists	144	(6)
Books	144	(1)
Book by One Author	144	(1)
Two or More Works by the Same Author	144	(1)
Book by Two or Three Authors	145	(1)
Book by Four or More Authors	145	(1)
Book Prepared by an Editor or Editors	145	(1)
Work in an Edited Collection	145	(1)
Translated Book	146	(1)
Periodicals	146	(1)
Article in a Journal with Continuous Pagination	146	(1)
Article in a Journal Paginated by Issue	146	(1)
Article in a Magazine	146	(1)
Anonymous Article in a Newspaper	147	(1)
Editorial in a Newspaper	147	(1)
Nonprint Sources	147	(1)
Interview	147	(1)
Sound Recording	147	(1)
Film	147	(1)
Electronic Sources	148	(1)
MLA Style: Citing Internet Sources	148	(1)
APA Style: Citing Internet Sources	148	(1)
An Online Book	148	(1)
World Wide Web Site	149	(1)
Article in an Electronic Journal	149	(1)
Encyclopedia Article on CD-ROM	149	(1)
Encyclopedia Article Online	149	(1)
E-Mail, Listserv, and Newsgroup Citations	150	(1)
Student Sample: A Research Paper (MLA Style)	150	(11)
``Legalizing Euthanasia: A Means to a More Comfortable Dying Process''	150	(11)
Patrick Pugh
Part Two The Aims of Argument
Looking for Some Truth: Arguing to Inquire	161	(48)
Inquiry and Interpretation in Academic Writing	161	(2)
The Writing Project: Exploratory Essay, Part 1	163	(27)
Step 1: Choosing a Topic for Inquiry	164	(1)
Step 2: Finding an Issue	164	(2)
Step 3: Stating Your Initial Opinions	166	(1)
Step 4: Exploring an Issue	167	(1)
Conversation and Dialogue in Inquiry	168	(1)
An Example Conversation	168	(1)
``Moving beyond the Blame Game''	168	(6)
Jonathan Alter
Analysis of ``Moving beyond the Blame Game''	174	(2)
Step 5: Engaging in a Dialogue about Your Initial Opinions	176	(4)
Step 6: Engaging in Dialogue with a Reading	180	(1)
Example Dialogue with a Reading	181	(1)
``Hollow Claims about Fantasy Violence''	181	(1)
Richard Rhodes
A Dialogue with Rhodes	181	(2)
Another Example of Dialogue with a Reading	183	(3)
``Media Literacy''	186	(3)
Sissela Bok
Possibilities for Dialogue with ``Media Literacy''	189	(1)
Inquiry Again: Digging Deeper	190	(11)
When the Experts Disagree	191	(1)
An Example of Experts Disagreeing	192	(1)
``Violence in the Mass Media and Violence in Society: The Link Is Unproven''	192	(4)
Jonathan L. Freedman
``Media Violence: A Demonstrated Public Health Threat to Children''	196	(4)
L. Rowell Huesmann
Jessica Moise
Commentary on the Experts' Disagreement	200	(1)
The Writing Project: Part 2	201	(2)
The Writing Project: Part 3	203	(1)
After Drafting Your Essay	203	(1)
Student Sample: An Exploratory Essay	204	(3)
``Exploratory Essay''	204	(3)
Sydney Owens
Inquiry: Summing up the Aim	207	(2)
Making Your Case: Arguing to Convince	209	(42)
The Nature of Convincing: Structure and Strategy	210	(10)
Case Structure	210	(1)
Case Strategy	211	(1)
Thinking about Audience	211	(1)
Formulating the Thesis	212	(1)
Choosing Reasons	212	(1)
``Arrested Development: The Conservative Case against Racial Profiling''	213	(4)
James Forman, Jr.
Arranging Reasons	217	(1)
Using Evidence	218	(1)
Introducing and Concluding the Argument	218	(2)
Writing a Convincing Argument	220	(26)
Preparing a Brief	221	(1)
Working toward a Position	221	(2)
Analyzing the Audience	223	(2)
Developing a Thesis	225	(1)
Analyzing the Thesis	226	(1)
Finding Reasons	227	(1)
The Audience's Belief System	227	(1)
Special Rules or Principles	228	(1)
Expert Opinion and Hard Evidence	228	(1)
Tradition	228	(1)
Comparison	229	(1)
The Probable or Likely	229	(1)
Cause and Effect	230	(1)
Definition	230	(2)
Selecting and Ordering Reasons	232	(2)
Using Evidence	234	(2)
From Brief to Draft	236	(1)
The Introduction	237	(2)
The Body: Presenting Reasons and Evidence	239	(2)
The Conclusion	241	(1)
Revising the Draft	242	(1)
Reading Your Own Writing Critically	243	(1)
Getting Feedback from Other Readers	244	(1)
Editing and Proofreading	245	(1)
Student Sample: An Essay Arguing to Convince	246	(5)
``Who Should Have the Right to Marry?''	246	(5)
Justin Spidel
Motivating Action: Arguing to Persuade	251	(42)
When to Convince and When to Persuade: A Matter of Emphasis	251	(1)
Analyzing Your Readers	252	(2)
Who Is the Audience, and How Do They View the Topic?	253	(1)
What Are Our Differences?	253	(1)
What Do We Have in Common?	254	(1)
Reading a Persuasive Essay	254	(18)
Background	254	(4)
The Basic Message	258	(1)
``Letter from Birmingham Jail''	258	(13)
Martin Luther King, Jr.
King's Analysis of His Audience: Identification and Overcoming Difference	271	(1)
Assumptions	271	(1)
Principles	271	(1)
Hierarchy of Values	272	(1)
Ends and Means	272	(1)
Interpretations	272	(1)
Implications or Consequences	272	(1)
Using the Forms of Appeal	272	(8)
The Appeal to Reason	273	(1)
The Appeal to Character	274	(2)
The Appeal to Emotion	276	(4)
The Appeal through Style	280	(1)
Drafting a Persuasive Essay	280	(8)
Conceiving a Readership	281	(2)
Discovering the Resources of Appeal	283	(1)
Appealing through Reason	283	(1)
Appealing through Character	284	(2)
Appealing to Emotion	286	(1)
Appealing through Style	287	(1)
Student Sample: An Essay Arguing to Persuade	288	(5)
``An Uncomfortable Position''	290	(3)
Joey Shanks
Resolving Conflict: Arguing to Negotiate and Mediate	293	(50)
Conflict Resolution and the Other Aims of Argument	294	(1)
The Process of Negotiation and Mediation	295	(25)
Understanding the Spirit of Negotiation and Mediation	295	(1)
Understanding the Opposing Positions	296	(1)
``Living with Roe v. Wade''	297	(8)
Margaret Liu McConnell
``Putting Women Back into the Abortion Debate''	305	(6)
Ellen Willis
Analysis of the Writer's Positions	311	(2)
Locating the Areas of Disagreement	313	(1)
Differences over Facts	313	(1)
Differences in Interests	314	(1)
Is the Difference a Matter of Assumptions?	314	(1)
Is the Difference a Matter of Principle?	315	(1)
Is the Difference a Matter of Values or Priorities?	315	(1)
Is the Difference a Matter of Ends or Means?	315	(1)
Is the Difference a Matter of Interpretation?	315	(1)
Is the Difference a Matter of Implications or Consequences?	316	(1)
Is the Difference a Result of Personal Background, Basic Human Needs, or Emotions?	316	(1)
Defining the Problem in Terms of the Real Interests	316	(2)
Inventing Creative Options	318	(1)
Gathering More Data	319	(1)
Reaching a Solution Based on Agreed-Upon Principles	319	(1)
The Mediatory Essay	320	(17)
``How to End the Abortion War''	320	(9)
Roger Rosenblatt
Analyzing a Mediatory Essay	329	(1)
Understanding the Spirit of Negotiation	329	(1)
Understanding the Opposing Positions	330	(1)
Locating Areas of Disagreement over Facts	330	(1)
Locating Areas of Disagreement in Interests	331	(1)
Defining the Problem in Terms of the Real Interests	332	(1)
Inventing Creative Options	333	(1)
Gathering More Data	333	(1)
Reaching a Solution Based on Agreed-Upon Principles	334	(1)
Writing a Mediatory Essay	335	(1)
Prewriting	335	(1)
Drafting	336	(1)
Revising	337	(1)
Student Sample: An Essay Arguing to Mediate	337	(6)
``Mediating the Speech Code Controversy''	337	(6)
Angi Grellhesl
Part Three Two Casebooks for Argument
Casebook on 9/11/01 and After: Coping with Terrorism	343	(124)
Photo Essay	345	(4)
Getting Oriented	349	(2)
Section 1: Recalling the Attack	351	(10)
``At Ground Zero: The First Hours''	352	(3)
Timothy Townsend
``The Real War''	355	(3)
Ken Kesey
`` `You People Did This' ''	358	(2)
Reshma Memon Yaqub
Topics for Discussion and Writing	360	(1)
Section 2: Getting Informed	361	(61)
General Information	362	(1)
``Ten Things to Know about the Middle East''	363	(8)
Stephen Zunes
``Types of Terrorism''	371	(2)
Paul Wilkinson
Topics for Discussion and Writing	373	(1)
Impact on the United States	374	(1)
``A Clear and Present Danger''	375	(7)
Matthew Cooper
``Technology: A High-Tech Home Front''	382	(3)
Steven Levy
Topics for Discussion and Writing	385	(1)
Understanding Terrorism	386	(1)
``The Roots of Conflict''	387	(5)
Jim Landers
Israel Through the Years	392	(1)
``Bin Laden Allies Want Islamic Unity''	393	(5)
Jim Landers
Havens for Terrorists	398	(2)
``Cradle of a Holy War''	400	(8)
Gregg Jones
``Terrorist Psycho-Logic: Terrorist Behavior as a Product of Psychological Forces''	408	(5)
Jerrold M. Post
Topics for Discussion and Writing	413	(2)
Conclusion: The Future of Terrorism	415	(1)
``Analysis of Terrorist Weapons and the Liberal State Response''	415	(6)
Paul Wilkinson
Topics for Discussion and Writing	421	(1)
Section 3: Assessing and Responding to Interpretations and Arguments	422	(43)
Initial Readings of 9/11	423	(1)
From ``Talk of the Town,'' The New Yorker	424	(1)
Hendrik Hertzberg	424	(2)
John Updike	426	(1)
Aharon Appelfeld	427	(1)
Susan Sontag	428	(1)
``Beyond Words, without Words, and Finding Words: Responding to the Catastrophe''	429	(3)
John D. French
Topics for Discussion and Writing	432	(1)
Arguments: Right and Left	433	(1)
``Their Amerika: The Song of the Counter-Tribalists'''	434	(4)
John O'Sullivan
``America Was Attacked Because It Is Good''	438	(2)
William Bennett
``Condemnation without Absolutes''	440	(2)
Stanley Fish
``Blowback''	442	(5)
Chalmers Johnson
Topics for Discussion and Writing	447	(1)
A Conflict of Cultures?	448	(1)
``The Clash of Civilizations?''	449	(4)
Samuel P. Huntington
``The Clash of Ignorance''	453	(5)
Edward W. Said
Topics for Discussion and Writing	458	(1)
Conclusion: Two Philosophical Interpretations	459	(1)
``The Enemy Is Not Islam: It Is Nihilism''	460	(2)
Charles Krauthammer
Among the Lost: Illusions of Immortality	462	(2)
James Atlas
Topics for Discussion and Writing	464	(1)
For Further Reading and Research	465	(2)
Casebook on Marriage and Family: Responding to a Changing Institution	467	(156)
Photo Essay	469	(5)
Getting Oriented: Then and Now, Ideal and Real	474	(2)
Section 1: Facts About Families	476	(37)
``American Families''	477	(29)
Suzanne M. Bianchi
Lynne M. Casper
``The Paradox of Perfection''	506	(5)
Arlene Skolnick
Topics for Discussion and Writing	511	(2)
Section 2: Love and Marriage	513	(26)
``Happily Ever After?''	514	(12)
Linda Waite
Maggie Gallagher
``Against Love''	526	(6)
Laura Kipnis
Cartoon	532	(1)
Tom Cheney
``What Is This Thing Called Love?''	533	(2)
Norah Vincent
``In My Tribe''	535	(2)
Ethan Watters
Topics for Discussion and Writing	537	(2)
Section 3: The Divorce Debate	539	(34)
``The Making of a Divorce Culture''	540	(7)
Barbara Dafoe Whitehead
``The Future of Marriage''	547	(11)
Stephanie Coontz
``The Effects of Divorce on America''	558	(7)
Patrick F. Fagan
Robert Rector
``In Defense of Splitting Up: The Growing Antidivorce Movement is Blind to the Costs of Bad Marriages''	565	(2)
Barbara Ehrenreich
``Alone''	567	(2)
William Jelani Cobb
``In Covenant Marriage, Forging Ties That Bind''	569	(3)
Diana Jean Schemo
Topics for Discussions and Writing	572	(1)
Section 4: The Changing Family	573	(45)
``The Madness of the American Family''	574	(10)
Midge Decter
``Families Are Changing---For the Better''	584	(11)
Betty Holcomb
``A World without Fathers''	595	(9)
David Popenoe
``The Myth of the `Normal' Family''	604	(4)
Louise B. Silverstein
Carl F. Auerbach
``American Families Are Drifting Apart''	608	(5)
Barbara Lebey
``Creating Your Own''	613	(3)
Pam Houston
Topics for Discussion and Writing	616	(2)
For Further Reading and Research	618	(5)
Part Four Readings: Issues and Arguments
Feminism: Evaluating the Effects of Gender Roles	623	(84)
``What Is Feminism?''	626	(11)
Cassandra L. Langer
Cartoon	637	(1)
Kirk Anderson
``The Problem That Has No Name''	638	(13)
Betty Friedan
``Mission No Longer Impossible---Or Is It?''	651	(3)
Suzanne Fields
Cartoon	654	(1)
B. Smaller
``Reconstructive Feminism''	655	(18)
Joan Williams
Cartoon	673	(1)
Garry Trudeau
``The Independent Woman (and Other Lies)''	674	(7)
Katie Roiphe
``A Real Mother in the Modern World''	681	(8)
Anne Roiphe
``The Beauty Myth''	689	(11)
Naomi Wolf
``Women's Rights: As the World Turns''	700	(7)
Katha Pollitt
Gay and Lesbian Rights: Responding to Homophobia	707	(42)
``Everybodys Threatened by Homophobia''	709	(4)
Jeffrey Nickel
``Confessions of a Heterosexual''	713	(6)
Pete Hamill
Cartoon	719	(1)
Garry Trudeau
``Homophobic? Reread Your Bible''	720	(4)
Peter J. Gomes
``Degrees of Discomfort''	724	(3)
Jonathan Alter
``Beyond Oppression''	727	(6)
Jonathan Rauch
``In or Out in the Classroom''	733	(16)
Toni A. H. McNaron
The News and Ethics: Reading Journalism Today	749	(42)
``What Is News?''	752	(8)
Jack Fuller
``In All Fairness''	760	(7)
Michael Schudson
``The Impossibility of Fairness''	767	(5)
Jim Squires
Cartoon	772	(1)
Mike Twohy
``Escaping the News Prison: How People See beyond the Walls''	773	(6)
W. Lance Bennett
``'Public Journalism': An Attempt to Connect the Media with the Public''	779	(12)
James Fallows
Liberal Education and Contemporary Culture: What Should Undergraduates Learn?	791	(50)
``Collegiate Life: An Obituary''	794	(10)
Arthur Levine
Jeanette S. Cureton
Photograph	804	(1)
Lois Bernstein
``On the Uses of Liberal Education: As Life Entertainment for Bored College Students''	805	(11)
Mark Edmundson
``On the Uses of Liberal Education: As a Weapon in the Hands of the Restless Poor''	816	(13)
Earl Shorris
``The Decline of the Knowledge Factory: Why Our Colleges Must Change''	829	(12)
John Tagg
Race and Class: Examining Social Inequality	841	(3)
Photograph	844	(1)
Bruce Roberts
``Second Thoughts about America's Racial Paradise''	845	(5)
Ryszard Kapuscinski
``The Beige and the Black''	850	(5)
Michael Lind
``Black Progress: How Far We've Come---And How Far We Have to Go''	855	(8)
Abigail
Stephan Thernstrom
Photograph	863	(1)
A. Ramey
``Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education''	864	(7)
Linda Darling-Hammond
``The Recoloring of Campus Life''	871	(13)
Shelby Steele
``The Distribution of Distress''	884
Patricia J. Williams
Appendix A Short Guide to Editing and Proofreading A
Glossary
Credits
Index