Twenty years ago, environment and sustainable development issues were marginal concerns for businesses and public bodies, requiring a relatively narrow range of personnel, knowledge and skills. Today, these issues are key operational concerns for all but

List of Figures

viii

List of Tables

x

List of Contributors

xii

Preface

xxi

List of Acronyms and Abbreviations

xxiii

Acknowledgements

xxvii

Introduction: Air Pollution and Health in Developing Countries - The Context

1

(20)

Frank Murray and Gordon McGranahan

Objectives

1

(1)

Air Pollution in its Historical Context

2

(3)

Types and Sources of Air Pollution

5

(4)

Policies and Development of Standards

9

(6)

Summary of the Contents

15

(6)

1 Health-damaging Air Pollution: A Matter of Scale

21

(14)

Kirk R. Smith and Sameer Akbar

Introduction

21

(1)

Risk Transition

22

(1)

Environmental Pathway Analysis

23

(2)

Exposure Assessment

25

(3)

Major Cross-scale Effects

28

(5)

Concluding Remarks

33

(2)

2 Air Pollution and Health - Studies in the Americas and Europe

35

(14)

Morton Lippmann

Introduction

35

(2)

Health Effects of Ozone (O3)

37

(2)

Health Effects of Particulate Matter (PM)

39

(5)

Health Effects of Diesel Engine Exhaust

44

(2)

Discussion and Conclusions

46

(3)

3 Air Pollution and Health in Developing Countries: A Review of Epidemiological Evidence

49

(19)

Isabelle Romieu and Mauricio Hernande-Avila

Introduction

50

(1)

Global Concentration Patterns of Outdoor Air Pollution

51

(1)

Health Effects of Particulate Matter and Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

52

(4)

Health Effects of Ozone

56

(2)

Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide

58

(1)

Health Effects of Carbon Monoxide

58

(1)

Health Effects of Lead

59

(3)

Conclusions

62

(6)

4 Local Ambient Air Quality Management

68

(21)

Dietrich Schwela

Introduction

69

(8)

Use of WHO Guidelines for Air Quality in Local Air Quality Management

77

(4)

Enforcement of Air Quality Standards: Clean Air Implementation Plans

81

(1)

Urban Air Quality Management in Europe

82

(7)

5 Rapid Assessment of Air Pollution and Health: Making Optimal Use of Data for Policy-and Decision-making

89

(19)

Yasmin von Schirnding

Introduction

90

(1)

Rapid Epidemiological Assessment

91

(3)

Individual Level Assessment Methods

94

(2)

Group Level Assessment Methods

96

(3)

Risk Assessment

99

(2)

Collection of Individual and Aggregate Level Data

101

(4)

Conclusions

105

(3)

6 A Systematic Approach to Air Quality Management: Examples from the URBAIR Cities

108

(21)

Steinar Larssen, Huib Jansen, Xander A 0lsthoorn, Jìtendra J Shah, Knut Aarbus and Fan Changzhong

Urban Air Quality Management and the URBAIR Project

108

(3)

Physical Assessment

111

(3)

Cost-benefit Analysis of Selected Measures

114

(2)

Action Plans

116

(1)

Policy Instruments and Plans for Air Quality Improvement in URBAIR Cities

117

(4)

Example: The Guangzhou Action Plan for Improved Air Quality

121

(5)

Conclusions

126

(3)

7 Indoor Air Pollution

129

(17)

Sameet Saksena and Kirk R Smith

Introduction

129

(2)

Concentrations and Exposures

131

(3)

Health Effects

134

(3)

Health Impacts

137

(1)

Knowledge Gaps and Necessary Research

138

(1)

Interventions

139

(3)

Conclusions

142

(4)

8 Vehicle Emissions and Health in Developing Countries

146

(30)

Michael P Walsh

Background and Introduction

147

(1)

Vehicle Population Trends and Characteristics

148

(3)

Adverse Health Effects Resulting from Vehicle Emissions

151

(8)

Strategies to Reduce Vehicle Emissions

159

(13)

Conclusions

172

(4)

9 Air Quality in Hong Kong and the Impact of Pollution on Health 1988-1997

176

(13)

Anthony, Johnson Hedley, Chit-Ming Wong, Tai-Hing Lam, Sarah Morag McGhee and Stefan Ma

Background

176

(3)

Methods

179

(1)

Findings

180

(4)

Discussion

184

(2)

Conclusions

186

(3)

10 Air Pollution and its Impacts on Health in Santiago, Chile

189

(17)

Bart D Ostro

Introduction

190

(1)

Epidemiological Overview

190

(1)

Studies in Santiago and their Comparability with Other Studies

191

(4)

Estimating the Quantitarive Health Impacts

195

(5)

Quantitative Results

200

(2)

Control Strategies

202

(4)

11 Air Quality and Health in Greater Johannesburg

206

(14)

Angela Mathee and Yasmin von Schirnding

Introducrion

206

(2)

Urbanization

208

(4)

Industrialization

212

(1)

Transport and Traffic

213

(3)

Programmes and Policies

216

(4)

Index

220

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