Air Quality in Airplane Cabins And Similar Enclosed Spaces

by Hocking, Martin B.; Hocking, Diana

• ISBN13: 9783540250197
• ISBN10: 3540250190
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-10-16
• Publisher: Springer Verlag

Summary

The issue of aircraft air quality is attracting considerable attention of late, as access to public air travel has expanded exponentially. Aircrew and passengers are increasingly concerned about operating and service decisions that could affect their health, comfort, and safety. The editor of this volume invited a wide range of experts to provide an in-depth treatment of virtually all aspects of aircraft cabin air quality. The topics are covered at a level comprehensible to all who fly as well as being of sufficient depth to be informative to decision makers concerned with purchase, design, operation, and servicing of passenger aircraft. Topics are grouped under: Control of Aircraft Cabin Air Quality; Possible Effects of Low Humidity, Decreased Outside Air Flows; and Effects of Some Aircraft Malfunctions on Cabin Air Quality. The volume concludes with Air Quality Systems for Related Enclosed Spaces, in which chapters cover air quality in buildings, ships, submarines, and spacecraft, which provide novel approaches potentially applicable to aircraft.

Table of Contents

Control of Aircraft Cabin Air Quality
Aircraft Environmental Control Systems
M. Dechow, C.A.H. Nurcombe	3	(22)
1 Introduction/Summary	4	(1)
2 Regulatory Requirements and Guidelines	5	(1)
3 Environmental and Occupant-Related Constraints	5	(2)
4 Cabin Pressurisation	7	(2)
4.1 Absolute Cabin Pressure	8	(1)
4.2 Cabin Pressure Rate of Change	9	(1)
5 Thermal Comfort	9	(4)
5.1 Flow Patterns in the Cabin	9	(3)
5.2 Temperature and Air Velocity	12	(1)
6 Humidity	13	(2)
7 Ventilation Rates	15	(1)
8 Contaminant Control	16	(6)
8.1 Cabin Operations Contamination Sources	16	(1)
8.2 External Contamination Sources	16	(1)
8.2.1 Carbon Dioxide	17	(1)
8.2.2 Carbon Monoxide	17	(1)
8.2.3 Volatile Organic Compounds and Semi-volatile Organic Compounds	18	(1)
8.2.4 Ozone	19	(1)
8.2.5 Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, Moulds	20	(1)
8.2.6 Particulates	21	(1)
9 Interdependency of Factors	22	(1)
10 Summary	23	(1)
References	23	(2)
Occupational and Public Health Risks
J. Murawski	25	(1)
1 Introduction	26	(27)
1.1 Regulatory Environment	26	(1)
1.2 Sources of Publicly Available Data	27	(4)
1.3 Health Risks Attributed to Aircraft Air Quality	31	(1)
2 Elevated Levels of Bioeffluents	32	(2)
2.1 Reported Symptoms	34	(1)
3 Infectious Agents	35	(1)
3.1 Reported Symptoms	36	(2)
4 Extreme Temperatures (See also Chap. 3)	38	(1)
4.1 Reported Symptoms	38	(1)
5 Exhaust Fumes, Deicing Fluid, Fuel Fumes, and Cleaning Products	39	(1)
5.1 Reported Symptoms	40	(1)
6 Heated Engine Oil and Hydraulic Fluid (See also Chap. 10, and 12)	40	(1)
6.1 Reported Symptoms	41	(3)
7 Reduced Oxygen Supply (See also Chap. 3, and 4)	44	(1)
7.1 Reported Symptoms	44	(1)
8 Ozone Gas (See also Chap. 3)	45	(1)
8.1 Reported Symptoms	46	(1)
9 Insecticides (See also Chap. 9)	47	(1)
9.1 Reported Symptoms	47	(1)
References	48	(5)
Aircraft Cabin Indoor Air Environment Requirements
N. Boschi, F. Haghighat	53	(1)
1 Introduction	54	(1)
2 A New Health Metric	55	(1)
3 Occupational Safety and Health Responsibilities	56	(1)
4 Global Thermal Comfort	60	(27)
4.1 Thermal Comfort Requirements for Elderly Persons	63	(3)
5 Health Considerations Relative to Environmental Parameters	66	(4)
6 Indoor Environment Parameters	70	(1)
6.1 Pressure (and Altitude Equivalent)	71	(1)
6.2 Ventilation Requirements	72	(4)
6.3 Relative Humidity	76	(1)
6.4 Ozone	77	(3)
7 Conclusions	80	(1)
References	80	(7)
Possible Effects of Low Humidity, Decreased Outside Air Flows
Human Physical Stresses at Normal and Abnormal Cabin Pressures
N.W. Pollock	87	(1)
1 Physics of Altitude	88	(23)
1.1 Atmospheric Pressure	88	(2)
1.2 Temperature	90	(1)
1.3 Humidity	91	(1)
1.4 Oxygen Content	91	(1)
2 Human Physiology and Oxygen	91	(1)
2.1 Oxygen Transport	92	(1)
2.2 Hypoxia	93	(1)
2.3 Time of Useful Consciousness	94	(1)
3 Aircraft Capabilities	95	(1)
3.1 Flight Altitudes	95	(1)
3.2 Cabin Pressurization	96	(1)
3.2.1 Evolution	96	(1)
3.2.2 Engineering	97	(1)
3.2.3 The Future of Cabin Pressurization	97	(1)
3.3 Normal Cabin Altitude	97	(1)
4 Health at Normal Cabin Pressure	98	(1)
4.1 Hypoxia	98	(1)
4.2 Passive Smoking	99	(1)
4.3 Low Humidity	99	(1)
4.4 Transmission of Infectious Diseases	100	(1)
4.5 Ergonomic Restrictions	100	(1)
4.6 Chemical Contaminants	100	(1)
4.7 Tolerance with Underlying Health Issues	101	(1)
4.8 Inflight Medical Emergencies	101	(1)
5 Loss of Cabin Pressure	101	(1)
5.1 History of Cabin Depressurization	102	(1)
5.2 Health Effects of Cabin Decompression	103	(1)
5.2.1 Barotrauma	104	(1)
5.2.2 Hypoxia	104	(1)
5.2.3 Decompression Sickness (DCS)	104	(1)
5.2.4 The Future of Decompression Sickness Risk	106	(1)
References	107	(4)
Air Travel and Thrombosis
P.L.F. Giangrande	111	(1)
1 Deep Vein Thrombosis	112	(1)
2 Air Travel and Thrombosis: Is There a Link?	112	(1)
3 How Common Is It?	113	(1)
4 What Causes It?	114	(1)
5 Prevention of Venous Thromboembolism Associated with Flight	117	(1)
6 Conclusions	119	(1)
Glossary	120	(1)
References	120	(3)
Disruptive Behaviour ("Air Rage"): Possible Aetiology
J.T.B. Moyle, H. Muir	123	(1)
1 Introduction	123	(1)
2 Causes of Aggressive Behaviour	124	(1)
3 Environmental Triggers of Aggressive Behaviour	127	(10)
3.1 Barometric Pressure	127	(6)
3.2 Carbon Dioxide	133	(1)
3.3 Relative Humidity	134	(1)
3.4 Temperature	135	(1)
3.5 Noise	135	(1)
4 Conclusions	135	(1)
References	135	(2)
Airplanes and Infectious Disease
H.A. Burge	137	(1)
1 Introduction	138	(1)
2 Contagious Disease	139	(12)
2.1 Presence of Infected Individuals	140	(1)
2.2 Stage of the Disease	140	(1)
2.3 Pathways for Agent Transfer	140	(1)
2.3.1 Aerosols	141	(1)
2.3.2 Droplets and Fomites	141	(1)
2.3.3 Direct Contact	141	(1)
2.3.4 Role of Ventilation	142	(1)
2.4 Role of Host Sensitivity	142	(1)
2.5 Time Spent in the Environment	142	(1)
3 Reports of Outbreaks	143	(1)
3.1 Upper Respiratory Infections	143	(1)
3.2 Influenza	144	(1)
3.3 Tuberculosis	144	(1)
3.4 SARS	144	(1)
3.5 Measles, Chicken Pox	145	(1)
3.6 Bacterial Meningitis	145	(1)
3.7 Hemorrhagic Fevers	145	(1)
4 Research Designed to Address Concerns	145	(1)
4.1 Microbial Investigations	146	(1)
4.2 Models and Risks	146	(1)
4.2.1 General Infectious Disease Models	146	(1)
4.2.2 Models Applied to Aircraft	146	(1)
5 Conclusions	146	(1)
References	147	(4)
Microbial Contamination in Airplane Cabins: Health Effects and Remediation
D. Menzies	151	(1)
1 Introduction	152	(1)
2 Environmental Sources within the Indoor Environment	153	(1)
3 Mechanisms of Health Effects of Microbial Contamination in the Indoor Environment	153	(1)
4 Specific Health Effects of Microbial Contamination of the Indoor Environment	155	(1)
5 Role of Ventilation in Microbial Effects on Health	156	(1)
6 Control of Microbial Contamination	157	(1)
7 Microbes within Aircraft - Sources and Health Effects	160	(1)
8 Microbial Control in Aircraft	161	(1)
9 Summary	162	(1)
References	163	(6)
Insecticide Use in Occupied Areas of Aircraft
J. Murawski	169	(1)
1 Insecticide Application to Control Domestic Insects	170	(23)
1.1 For Routine Control of Cockroaches and Other Insects	170	(1)
1.2 In Response to Reported Insect Sightings	171	(1)
1.3 For Seasonal Control of Particular Domestic Insects	171	(1)
1.4 In the Cargo Hold	171	(1)
2 Insecticide Application to Comply with Foreign Quarantine Regulations	172	(1)
2.1 Background and Justification for Spraying	172	(2)
2.2 Contents of Sprays and Application Methods	174	(1)
2.3 Standards Intended to Limit Aircraft Occupants' Exposure to Insecticides	175	(2)
2.4 Potential For Exposure to Insecticides on Aircraft	177	(2)
3 Health Impact of Insecticide Application on Aircraft	179	(1)
3.1 Reports of Adverse Health Effects Filed by Aircraft Occupants	179	(1)
3.2 Physiological Factors That Increase Individual Susceptibility	180	(1)
3.3 Health Impact of Exposure to Mixtures of Particular Insecticides	181	(2)
3.4 Toxicological Data	183	(1)
3.4.1 Pyrethroids	184	(1)
3.4.2 Permethrin	185	(1)
3.4.3 Phenothrin	185	(1)
4 Potential Alternative Control Methods	185	(1)
4.1 Mechanical Disinsection Method to Control the Spread of Domestic Insects	185	(1)
4.2 Proposed Mechanical Disinsection Methods to Satisfy Foreign Quarantine Regulations	186	(2)
References	188	(5)
Effects of Some Aircraft Malfunctions on Cabin Air Quality
Aircraft Air Quality Incidents, Symptoms, Exposures and Possible Solutions
C. van Netten	193	(18)
1 Introduction	194	(2)
2 Frequency of Air Quality Incidents in the Airline Industry	196	(1)
3 Problems Associated with Obtaining Objective and Comparable Data	196	(2)
4 Symptoms Associated with Air Quality Incidents	198	(1)
5 Source of Air in Aircraft	198	(2)
5.1 Ram Air	199	(1)
5.2 Bleed Air	200	(1)
6 Oil and Hydraulic Fluid Contaminants	200	(2)
6.1 Jet Engine Lubricating Oils	200	(1)
6.2 Hydraulic Fluids	200	(1)
6.3 Pyrolysis Products	201	(1)
7 Available Data and Required Data	202	(2)
7.1 Problems in Capturing Rare Air Quality Events in Aircraft	202	(1)
7.2 Benefits to the Industry of Monitoring Changes in Air Quality	203	(1)
8 Available Avenues of Obtaining Air Quality Measurements in Aircraft	204	(1)
8.1 Aircraft Filter Analysis	204	(1)
8.2 Coalescer Bag Analysis	204	(1)
8.3 Monitoring Aircraft Air Quality During Flight	204	(1)
8.4 Indicators of Air Quality During Incidents	205	(1)
9 Development of a New Air Monitor	205	(1)
9.1 Benefits to the Industry from Monitoring for CO	206	(1)
10 Standards of Exposure	206	(2)
11 Identification of Potential Synergistic Agents	208	(1)
12 Exposure Data Acquisition	208	(1)
13 Alternate Solutions	209	(1)
14 Conclusion	209	(1)
References	209	(2)
Aircraft Air Quality Malfunction Incidents: Causation, Regulatory, Reporting and Rates
C. Winder, S. Michaelis	211	(1)
1 Introduction	212	(1)
2 Engine Lubricating Oil and Hydraulic System Malfunctions	214	(15)
2.1 Sources of the Problem	214	(2)
2.2 Regulatory Requirements	216	(1)
2.3 Reporting Requirements	216	(1)
2.4 Evidence of Reporting of Defects	217	(5)
2.5 Under-Reporting	222	(1)
3 Conclusions	223	(2)
References	225	(4)
Crew Effects from Toxic Exposures on Aircraft
C. Winder, S. Michaelis	229	(1)
1 Introduction	230	(1)
2 Toxic Ingredients of Jet Oils	231	(18)
2.1 The Substituted Diphenylamine	232	(1)
2.2 N-Phenyl-alpha-naphthylamine	233	(1)
2.3 Tricresyl Phosphate	234	(3)
3 Effects of Aircraft Oil Leaks on Crew	237	(3)
4 Other Factors of Importance to the Aviation Industry	240	(2)
5 Conclusions	242	(3)
References	245	(4)
Aircraft Air Quality Malfunction Incidents: Design, Servicing, and Policy Measures to Decrease Frequency and Severity of Toxic Events
R. Best, S. Michaelis	249	(1)
1 Introduction	250	(1)
2 Development of the Regulatory Framework	251	(1)
3 Ventilation Regulations	252	(1)
4 Sources and Examples of Defects Covering Contaminated Air From Lubricant and Fluid Leaks	253	(14)
4.1 Service Bulletins	254	(1)
4.2 Airworthiness Directives	255	(1)
4.3 Service Information Leaflets or Letters	256	(1)
4.4 All Operator Letters or Message	256	(2)
4.5 Other Sources of Information	258	(1)
4.6 A Case Study in Reporting Documentation: The BAe 146	258	(1)
5 Regulatory Inconsistencies Indicating Health and Safety Issues	258	(3)
6 Conclusion	261	(1)
References	262	(5)
Aircraft Cabin Air Filtration and Related Technologies: Requirements, Present Practice and Prospects
S. Michaelis, T. Loraine	267	(1)
1 Introduction	268	(1)
2 Recirculated Air Composition	269	(1)
3 Recirculated Air Filtration Methods	269	(24)
3.1 Direct Interception	270	(1)
3.2 Diffusional Interception	271	(1)
3.3 Inertial Impaction	271	(1)
4 High Efficiency Particulate Air Filters	271	(2)
4.1 Number of Recirculated Air Filters per Aircraft Type	273	(1)
4.2 Cost Saving of Recirculated Air	274	(1)
4.3 Operational Effect of Unserviceable Recirculation Fans	275	(1)
5 Bleed Air Filtration	275	(1)
5.1 Non Regenerative Chemical Filtration System	276	(1)
5.2 Regenerative Chemical Filtration Systems	277	(1)
5.2.1 Temperature Swing Adsorption	277	(1)
5.2.2 Pressure Swing Adsorption	278	(1)
5.2.3 Pressure Temperature Swing Adsorption	278	(1)
5.3 Plasma	278	(1)
5.4 Ultraviolet Light	279	(1)
5.5 Nanocrystalline Materials	279	(1)
5.6 Catalytic Converters	280	(1)
5.6.1 The Reduction Catalyst	280	(1)
5.6.2 The Oxidation Catalyst	280	(1)
6 ECHO-Air	281	(4)
7 Conclusions	285	(2)
References	287	(6)
Air Quality for Related Enclosed Spaces
Aircraft Cabin Air Quality Trends Relative to Ground Level Standards
J.E. Cone	293	(1)
1 Introduction	294	(1)
2 Candidate Ground Level Standards and Standard-setting Agencies	297	(20)
2.1 US Occupational Safety and Health Administration	297	(1)
2.2 American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists	298	(1)
2.3 US Environmental Protection Agency	299	(1)
2.4 American Society for Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers	299	(1)
2.5 Society of Automotive Engineers	300	(1)
2.6 European Community	300	(1)
2.7 Spacecraft Guidelines	300	(1)
2.8 Submarine Guidelines	300	(4)
3 Types of Contaminants and their Regulation	304	(1)
3.1 Other Specific Contaminants of Concern	304	(1)
3.2 Specific Classes of Compounds, by Use Type	305	(1)
3.2.1 Pesticides	305	(1)
3.2.2 Jet Fuels	305	(1)
3.2.3 Jet Oils	305	(1)
3.2.4 Hydraulic Fluids	309	(1)
3.2.5 Carbonyl-containing Compounds	309	(1)
3.2.6 Dusts and Particulates	309	(1)
3.2.7 Physical Parameters	310	(1)
3.2.8 Infectious Disease Transmission	310	(1)
3.2.9 Tobacco Smoke	310	(1)
4 Effects of Aircraft Environmental Systems	311	(1)
4.1 Environmental Control Systems	311	(1)
4.2 Filtration Systems	312	(1)
4.3 Distribution of Air and Temperature Control in the Cabin	312	(1)
5 Conclusions and Recommendations	312	(1)
References	313	(4)
Automobile, Bus, and Rail Passenger Air Quality
C.P. Weisel	317	(1)
1 Introduction	318	(1)
2 Principles of Exposure and Contribution Due to Proximity to a Source	318	(1)
3 Time Activity Patterns	320	(1)
4 Concentration of Pollutants Within Motor Vehicles	323	(12)
4.1 Carbon Monoxide	323	(4)
4.2 Volatile Organic Compounds	327	(3)
4.3 Carbonyl Compounds	330	(1)
4.4 Particulate Matter	330	(1)
5 Conclusion	331	(1)
References	332	(3)
Indoor Air Quality on Passenger Ships
A.D. Webster, G.L. Reynolds	335	(1)
1 Introduction	336	(1)
2 Indoor Air Pollution and Health Effects	337	(1)
3 Indoor Air Quality on Ships	337	(14)
3.1 Shipboard Air Quality Assessments	339	(6)
3.2 Air Quality and Comfort Criteria	345	(1)
4 Remedial Measures	346	(2)
5 Conclusions	348	(1)
References	348	(3)
Submarine Atmospheres
W. Mazurek	351	(1)
1 Introduction	352	(1)
2 Early Submarines	353	(1)
3 World War II Generation Submarines	353	(30)
3.1 Snorting	354	(2)
3.2 Air Purification	356	(3)
3.3 Air Monitoring	359	(1)
4 Nuclear-Powered Submarines	360	(1)
4.1 Air Quality Standards	361	(2)
4.2 Air Purification	363	(1)
4.2.1 Carbon dioxide removal	363	(1)
4.2.2 Oxygen Generation	364	(1)
4.2.3 Carbon Monoxide and Hydrogen Removal	365	(1)
4.2.4 Volatile Organic Compounds	365	(1)
4.2.5 Aerosols	365	(1)
4.3 Early Air Quality Problems	366	(1)
4.4 Air Monitoring	367	(2)
5 Post-War Conventional Submarines	369	(1)
5.1 Air Purification	369	(1)
5.2 Air Monitoring	370	(4)
6 New Generation of Conventional AIP Submarines	374	(1)
6.1 Air Purification	374	(2)
6.2 Air Monitoring	376	(2)
7 Conclusions	378	(1)
References	379	(4)
Air Quality Systems for Related Enclosed Spaces: Spacecraft Air
L.M. Mulloth, J.E. Finn	383	(1)
1 Introduction	384	(1)
2 Environmental Control and Life-Support Systems for Spacecraft	385	(1)
3 Elements of Air Quality Control in a Spacecraft	388
3.1 Carbon Dioxide Removal	389	(1)
3.1.1 Physical Adsorption	389	(1)
3.1.2 Chemical Absorption	390	(1)
3.1.3 Biological Processes	392	(1)
3.1.4 Electrochemical Processes	393	(1)
3.2 Carbon Dioxide Reduction	394	(1)
3.2.1 Sabatier Process	395	(1)
3.2.2 Bosch Process	396	(1)
3.3 Oxygen and Nitrogen Storage and Supply	396	(1)
3.4 Humidity and Temperature Control	397	(1)
3.5 Atmosphere Monitoring	398	(1)
3.6 Trace Contaminant Control	398	(1)
4 Current Methods and Systems	398	(1)
4.1 Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly	399	(1)
4.2 Trace Contaminant Control System	400	(1)
4.3 CO2 Reduction	401	(1)
4.4 Oxygen Generation	401	(1)
5 Air Revitalization Systems of the Future	401	(2)
References	403	(2)
Subject Index	405