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Preface

xvii

Part One THE ROOTS OF GOVERNMENT AND THE AMERICAN POLITICAL LANDSCAPE

(134)

The Roots of the American Political System

(8)

On the Beginnings of Political Societies, from The Second Treatise of Government

(1)

John Locke

This English political philosopher discusses man's inadequacies in the state of nature. Locke offers his ideas concerning man's need to turn to government to improve his lot and offers his view that governments are limited by natural law and natural rights

On the Natural Conditions of Mankind, from Leviathan

(2)

Thomas Hobbes

This equally famous English political philosopher is much more suspicious of man than Locke. Hobbes argues that individuals must give up significant rights to government in exchange for living in relative peace

The Declaration of Independence

(4)

The words of Thomas Jefferson and ideas of those at the Continental Congress are words with tremendous meaning even today. At the same time, the ideas of Locke and Hobbes and their influence on the Founders are clear

The American Political Landscape

(17)

One Nation, Indivisible: Is It History?

(6)

William Booth

America long has been hailed as a great melting pot. Is that still the case? New waves of immigration have heightened tensions in many parts of the United States as the racial and ethnic composition of the nation changes rapidly

U.S. Population (projection)

(5)

American Racial and Ethnic Politics in the 21st Century: A Cautious Look Ahead

(4)

Jennifer L. Hochschild

Hochschild, an astute observer of race and class in America, notes both the changes and cleavages within the African-American community and that community's reaction to new immigrants and the growing potential political strength of ethnic minorities who are no longer a minority in some places

The 60s and the 90s: Americans' Political, Moral, and Religious Values Then and Now

(6)

Robert J. Blendon

As we move into the millennium, it is important to understand Americans' changing political views across a spectrum of issues. Polls show that many Americans are becoming more conservative and don't favor policies designed to help minorities or the poor. Partisan differences are also clearly evident

American Values, Then and Now

(2)

Role of Government Today: Differences Between Republicans and Democrats

(1)

Morality, Toleration, and Religion in the Public Domain Today: Differences Between Republicans and Democrats

(2)

The Constitution, the Fight for Its Ratification, and the Constitutional Amendment Process

(19)

Federalist No. 47

(2)

James Madison

Madison, who was later to be the fourth president, argues that the new Constitution, with its system of separation of powers, will provide for a strong central government. At the same time, says Madison, this constitutional design will limit the opportunity of each branch of government to have too much power at the expense of the others

The Economist If You Sincerely Want to Be a United States

(5)

The editors of the British journal The Economist speculate about the lessons that new nations can learn from the actions of the Framers who constructed the Constitution more than 200 years ago

The Framers, the Supreme Court, and Notions of Original Intent

(4)

Leonard W. Levy

The debate continues to rage about what the Framers' meant as they drafted the Constitution. As Levy notes, the Framers took no official notes during the Constitutional Convention and their public statements often showed them to be divided about what various provisions meant. Levy then questions whether those who argue that the Justices of the Supreme Court must follow the Framers' original intent can claim that they know what the Framers' original intentions were

Proposals to Amend the Constitution

(7)

John R. Vile

The Framers intended that the Constitution be very difficult to amend. The formal amending process outlined in Article V has successfully made amendments to the Constitution rare and avoided it being the repository of the demands of myriad special interests

Amending the Constitution

(2)

The American Federal System

(22)

Federalist No. 17

(1)

Alexander Hamilton

Hamilton argues strongly for a national government with powers over commerce within a system in which states would retain their traditional police powers

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

(3)

Decrying that ``the power to tax is the power to destroy,'' Chief Justice John Marshall, writing for the Supreme Court, ruled that states have no authority to tax the national government and that the national law is supreme to any state law

Founders, Keepers

(2)

Cass R. Sunstein

Sunstein discusses the nature of government, the constant struggle between large and small governments, and the dilemmas created by the federal system

Birthday Cake Federalism

(2)

Aaron Wildavsky

Whether you call it marble cake, layer cake, or picket fence federalism, the citizenry, says Wildavsky, would be better served if people worried more about how to improve what governments do rather than worrying about the level of government that does it

Webster v. Reproductive Health Services (1989)

(3)

This 5 to 4 Supreme Court decision gave much greater latitude to the states to enact abortion restrictions and appeared to some commentators as an invitation to which many states responded

United States v. Lopez (1995)

(4)

In another 5 to 4 decision, a majority of the Supreme Court concludes that the Gun Free School Zones Act of 1995 is unconstitutional because Congress has no constitutional authority to legislate in areas reserved to the states under the federal system outlined by the Constitution

American Federalism: Half-Full or Half-Empty?

(5)

Martha Derthick

After reviewing several recent developments in federalism, Derthick is still not convinced that recent Supreme Court actions signal true devolution. Instead, she says the picture is a mixed one

Civil Liberties

(35)

Federalist No. 84

(2)

Alexander Hamilton

Hamilton argues that a Bill of Rights is not only unnecessary, it is dangerous

Centinel, No. 1

(2)

Samuel Bryan

Although this first letter published in the series known as The Anti-Federalist Papers is addressed more directly to Federalists No. 10 and 51 about the virtues of checks and balances, Bryan not only sets forth the classic Anti-Federalist arguments against a strong national government, but also warns of its negative consequences on individual liberties

The Bill of Rights

(1)

Seventeen Words: The Quiet Revolution of the Fourteenth Amendment

(5)

Fred W. Friendly

Martha J. H. Elliot

Beginning with Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857), the U.S. Supreme Court's interpretations of the Fourteenth Amendment and how its provisions were used to make many of the protections found in the Bill of Rights applicable to the states through the process of selective incorporation are explained

Freedom of Religion

(1)

Lee v. Weisman (1992)

(3)

The establishment clause of the First Amendment prohibits clergy from offering prayers at an official public school graduation ceremony

Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye v. City of Hialeah (1993)

(3)

City regulations barring animal sacrifices, which appeared to be directed at a particular religion, violate the free exercise clause of the Fourteenth Amendment

Freedom of Speech

(1)

R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul, Minnesota (1992)

(4)

The Supreme Court concluded that a St. Paul's city ordinance barring hate speech was unconstitutional

Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union (1997)

(3)

In 1996 the Republican Congress enacted the Communications Decency Act to protect minors from obscene or indecent information on the Internet. The Supreme Court ruled that several provisions of the Act abridged the free speech protections of the First Amendment

The Rights of Criminal Defendants

(1)

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

(2)

The Sixth Amendment to the Constitution guarantees all defendants the right to counsel in criminal cases; through the incorporation doctrine, this guarantee is applied to the states

McCleskey v. Kemp (1987)

(6)

Not only is the death penalty constitutional despite the Eighth Amendment's ban against ``cruel and unusual punishments,'' impositions of the death penalty are constitutional even where evidence exists that it may be implemented unfairly

Civil Rights

104

(31)

Federalist No. 42

105

(1)

James Madison

Although James Madison and others at the Constitutional Convention opposed slavery, slaves were given no rights under the Constitution (and were counted as 3/5 of a white man for purposes of determining population). Recognition of the evils of slave trade, however, led the Framers to ban it after 1808, although slavery itself remained legal

Race Discrimination, Affirmative Action, and Constitutional Standards of Review: Strict Scrutiny

106

(2)

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

108

(4)

Decades after passage of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court finally ruled that segregated schools violated the Constitution

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

112

(5)

The use of race-based criteria for medical school was found permissible although quotas were ruled unconstitutional

Hopwood v. Texas (1996)

117

(6)

In a decision that the U.S. Supreme Court refused to review, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the minority admissions procedures used at the University of Texas-designed to ensure the admission of more Latino and African-American students-were unconstitutional

Sex Discrimination and the Intermediate Standard of Review

123

(1)

Reed v. Reed (1971)

123

(3)

It wasn't until 1971 that the Supreme Court found that discrimination based on sex was actionable under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment

United States v. Virginia (1996)

126

(4)

Virginia's support of an all-male military college violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as the Court applies the intermediate standard of review

Gay Rights and the Minimum Rationality Standard of Review

130

(1)

Romer v. Evans (1996)

130

(5)

The Supreme Court finds that a Colorado state constitutional amendment, which repealed state and local provisions barring discrimination based on sexual orientation, violates the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution

Part Two THE INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERNMENT

135

(94)

The Congress

137

(29)

Federalists No. 52 and 62

138

(3)

James Madison

The methods by which Senators and Representatives are selected necessarily mean that each body performs key functions. The popularly elected House is to be more subject to the whims of the people; the Senate, in contrast, was meant to be a slower and more deliberative body

The Washington Community

141

(3)

James Sterling Young

For members of Congress, Washington in its early days was quite different from the Washington of today. Most were transients and few wished to make service in Washington a career

Civil Occupations of Legislators, 9th and 13th Congresses

143

(1)

The Rise of the Washington Establishment

144

(4)

Morris P. Fiorina

Congress and its individual members today preside over a huge government, much of which has been created to assist members in their bids for reelection

Homestyle: How Members View Their Districts and Its Effects

148

(7)

Richard F. Fenno Jr.

Members of the House of Representatives see four different constituencies when they view their districts. These perceptions, in turn, affect how they allocate their resources and present themselves

An Effective Congress and Effective Members: What Does It Take?

155

(4)

Barbara Sinclair

The prerequisites for an effective member of Congress do not always equate to the needs of an effective Congress

Are Women More Likely to Vote for Women's Issue Bills Than Their Male Colleagues?

159

(7)

Michele L. Swers

A member of Congress's gender is a powerful predictor of how a female representative will vote on issues that affect women, regardless of political party

Probability That a Republican Legislator with a Given Gender, Ideology, and Constituency Will Vote for a Women's Issue Bill

163

(3)

The Presidency

166

(31)

Federalist No. 70

167

(1)

Alexander Hamilton

Energy is needed in the office of a single chief executive to ensure a strong nation

The Art of Statecraft

168

(3)

James Sterling Young

The Framers did everything possible to rein in the powers of a president. Still, through the use of what Young terms ``statecraft,'' early presidents built effective bridges to Congress and the public to accomplish their goals

Presidential Character

171

(7)

James David Barber

The character of the individual occupying the White House gives important hints about how that person will govern and to what effect

Barber's Presidential Personalities

178

(1)

Presidential Power and the Power to Persuade

178

(3)

Richard E. Neustadt

The president's ability to govern is predicated by his ability to persuade Congress and the Washington establishment. To do this, a president must be able to marshal all the benefits that accrue to the office

Going Public

181

(4)

Samuel Kernell

Presidential popularity and policy output are closely related. What presidents say to the public matters more than ever before

United States v. Nixon (1974)

185

(4)

The president's broad claim of executive privilege did not allow him to withhold tapes of conversations subpoenaed for use in a criminal trial

Five Presidents and the Legacy of Watergate

189

(3)

Bob Woodward Shadow

Watergate, says reporter Bob Woodward, left the presidency weakened, and future presidents, not recognizing that legacy, have found it very difficult to govern

Clinton v. Jones (1997)

192

(5)

Presidential immunity from lawsuits during a president's term of office does not attach to the president when he is charged with illegal conduct in the carrying out of nonofficial duties

The Bureaucracy

197

(15)

Federalist No. 72

198

(1)

Alexander Hamilton

Assistants, or deputies, of the president must derive their powers from him and ought to be responsible to him

Presidential Cabinets in the Jeffersonian Era

199

(2)

James Sterling Young

Since the beginning, presidential cabinets and their roles have often been a reflection of the men who have chosen them

The Rise of the Bureaucratic State

201

(11)

James Q. Wilson

Over the years, the size of the bureaucracy has grown, as has its accommodation of private sector interests, making the bureaucracy the ``Fourth Branch'' of government and virtually impossible to dismantle

The Judiciary

212

(17)

Federalist No. 78

213

(1)

Alexander Hamilton

The Supreme Court, ``the least dangerous branch,'' must be removed from political pressures if it is to exercise its power of judicial review wisely

The Early Supreme Court

214

(2)

James Sterling Young

The justices, in residence in D.C. only two months a year, were hardly part of the newly growing Washington community

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

216

(3)

Chief Justice Marshall establishes the Court's right to judicial review and avoids a direct confrontation with the executive branch

How the Supreme Court Arrives at Decisions

219

(6)

William H. Rehnquist

An ``insider'' account of how decisions are arrived at by the nine Justices

The Rehnquist Court: Justices Want to Be Known as Jurists, Not Activists

225

(4)

Joan Biskupic

Gone is the activism of early Courts. Today, even Democratic appointees take a reserved role in interpreting the Constitution

Part Three POLITICAL BEHAVIOR AND THE POLITICAL PROCESSES OF GOVERNMENT

229

(106)

Public Opinion

231

(23)

Federalist No. 49

232

(2)

James Madison

Madison recognizes the dangers of ``disturbing the public tranquility by interesting too strongly the public passion.''

The Meaning of Public Opinion

234

(5)

V. O. Key Jr.

It is important to understand just what public opinion is so that its impct on democratic institutions can better be understood

Monica Lewinsky's Contribution to Political Science

239

(6)

John R. Zaller

Zaller analyzes several pre- and post-Monica polls to examine determinants of public support for the president. Of special concern are the role of the media, the economy, and the public's concern with actual political achievement of the president

Trends in Presidential Job Approval in the Initial Phase of the Lewinsky Matter

240

(5)

Pollsters.com

245

(2)

Warren Mitofsky

While the Internet is tempting many pollsters, Mitofsky warns that online data collection is far less reliable than more traditional phone sampling. He is especially concerned about the underrepresentation of several groups and pollsters' lack of theorizing about their use of the Internet as a substitute for more traditional polls

How Polling Transforms Public Opinion

247

(7)

Benjamin Ginsburg

Polls not only make pollsters more important in the political process, they minimize the power of pressure groups

Political Parties and Interest Groups

254

(36)

Federalist No. 10

255

(1)

James Madison

The factions that arise in a democracy must be checked. Without the system of checks and balances built into the Constitution, Madison feared that factions, or special interests, could be a serious threat to liberty

Party Government

256

(2)

E. E. Schattschneider

The nature and difference of political parties and interest groups are explored in this seminal work

The Place of Political Parties in America

258

(5)

Paul Allen Beck

Looking at parties in the electorate, parties as organizations, and parties in government, political scientist Paul Beck analyzes what he terms the renaissance of the parties and speculates about the future of party politics in the United States

Williams v. Rhodes (1968)

263

(3)

The states cannot put unnecessary burdens on third or minority political parties which favor the existing two-party system

The Logic of Collective Action

266

(2)

Mancur Olson Jr.

Economist Olson argues that it is not rational for individuals to join some types of interest groups

Interest-Group Liberalism

268

(9)

Theodore J. Lowi

Lowi bemoans the advent of what he terms ``interest-group liberalism,'' which he argues has produced a system in which the government continually responds to the demands of multiple interests and interest groups without evaluating competing claims

PAC Power

277

(4)

Larry J. Sabato

Political action committees (PACs) have greatly enhanced the role of organized interests in national elections. Their ability to steer critical dollars to the campaigns of friendly legislators has changed the political landscape dramatically and brought cries from political reformers who bemoan the role and power of special interests

Kinds of Candidates PACs Prefer

278

(3)

Buckley v. Valeo (1976)

281

(9)

The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 limits spending by individuals and groups on federal candidates. It also requires political action committees (PACs) to provide detailed reporting to the FEC in quarterly reports. The constitutionality of the Act was upheld by the Supreme Court in this decision that opened the floodgates to mush-rooming spending by special interests and PACs

Campaigns, Elections, and Voting

290

(21)

Federalist No. 39

291

(1)

James Madison

In a republican form of government, at least some members of the government need to be elected directly by the people

The Responsible Electorate

292

(2)

V. O. Key Jr.

Much can be read into the election results beyond the simple fact of who wins and who does not. Key notes the importance of the actions of the electroate in setting the course for the nation

The Politics of Congressional Elections

294

(9)

Gary C. Jacobson

Although each congressional district is unique, one factor permeates the electioins that occur in each-the power of incumbency, which stems from several factors discussed by Jacobson

Personal Staffs of House and Senate Members, 1930-1993

296

(1)

House Members' Paid Trips to Their Districts, 1962-1995

297

(1)

Election-Year Congressional Mailings, 1954-1992

298

(5)

The American Voter

Angus Campbell

Warren E. Miller

Philip E. Converse

Donald E. Stokes

In this clasic work, this team from the University of Michigan grapples with devising a way for political scientists to predict whether an individual will vote and who he or she will choose at the polls

303

(3)

Change in Status over Time of Events Affecting Behavior

306

(1)

The Gender Gap in American Voting

307

(4)

Karlyn H. Bowman

Tom Smith

From 1980 through 1996, women turned out and voted for the Democratic contender for president in record numbers. They also appear to favor Democratic women candidates. Did these phenomena help Hillary Clinton?

The Media

311

(24)

Federalist No. 84

312

(1)

Alexander Hamilton

Hamilton notes that New York State gave no specific constitutional protection to freedom of the press. Why, then, should the new Constitution?

The News Media as a Political Institution

313

(5)

Timothy E. Cook

Reporters not only report the news made by political actors, they too are political actors themselves as they bring their biases and the demands of their news organizations to their efforts to report what they see as the ``news.''

News That Matters

318

(3)

Shanto Iyengar

Donald R. Kinder

As television has become the most important source of news for most Americans, we must recognize the powerful roles of agenda setting and priming that the news media play in the political process. That role is not a neutral one, according to lyengar and Kinder

Inquisition, American Style: Attack Journalism and Feeding Frenzies

321

(3)

Larry J. Sabato

How far can the media go in its coverage of political candidates and office holders?

Sheppard v. Maxwell (1966)

324

(7)

The media's right to provide press coverage of a trial must be balanced with a defendant's right to a fair trial. Here, the Supreme Court suggests some ways that can be done, but are they out of date?

The ``New'' Media and Politics

331

(4)

Doris A. Graber

New media, including the Internet, are quickly changing the face of how Americans get the news as well as expanding their sources of information about politics

Part Four PUBLIC POLICY

335

(32)

Domestic Policy

337

(16)

Federalist No. 44

338

(2)

James Madison

Congress's authority to ``make all laws necessary and proper'' has allowed it to expand its powers in the domestic sphere far more than the Framers intended

Up and Down with Ecology---the ``Issue-Attention Cycle''

340

(9)

Anthony Downs

The public's attention to ``critical'' issues is fleeting at best. Thus, groups must work the issue-attention cycle to their advantage

Incremental Reform Toward What?

349

(4)

Robert Kuttner

The issue of health care continues to vex policy makers and the parties on both sides of the aisle. In this commentary, Kuttner notes three problems with the current system agreed upon by those he views in the political center and the difficulties in getting agreement on any policies perceived as costly

Foreign and Military Policy

353

(14)

Federalist No. 75

354

(1)

Alexander Hamilton

The power to approve treaties was vested in the Senate and not in the more ``variable and numerous house.''

Glitz! Visuals! Action! The Whole World Is Watching CNN

355

(4)

Jay Rosen

The conduct of war and foreign relations changes as world leaders stay tuned to learn what's happening

Presidential War Powers, the War Powers Resolution, and the Persian Gulf

359

(8)

Richard M. Pious

Pious argues that the constitutional provisions regarding war making are ambiguous. Thus, Congress tried to reassert itself in 1973 by passage of the War Powers Resolution. Nevertheless, the president usually controls the foreign policy process

Appendix A The Constitution of the United States of America

367