America's Foreign Policy Toolkit

by Stevenson, Charles A.

• ISBN13: 9781608719853
• ISBN10: 1608719855
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2012-10-02
• Publisher: Cq Pr

Summary

How is foreign policy in the United States really crafted? Who does the work? How are the various activites of the many key participants coordinated and controlled? In America's Foreign Policy Toolkit: Key Institutions and Processes, Charles A. Stevenson identifies for students what the key foreign policy tools are, clarifies which tools are best for which tasks, describes the factors that constrain or push how they're used, and provides fresh insight into the myriad challenges facing national security decisionmakers. Written in an engaging style with case examples drawn from behind the scenes, Stevenson brings depth and dimension to the sophisticated pathways and instruments of American foreign policy, from the State Department to the intelligence agencies to the Commerce Department and beyond. In this brief text for American foreign policy and national security courses, Stevenson focuses on the institutions and processes of foreign policy, beginning with a look at the historical context and then looking in turn at the tools available to the president, congress, and the shared budgetary tools. The following part, Using the Tools, looks at the diplomatic, economic, military, intelligence, homeland security, and international institutions instruments. Stevenson concludes with chapters that consider the important constraints and limitation of the U.S. toolkit. Each chapter ends with a case study that allows readers to connect the theory of the toolkit with the realities of decisionmaking. Highlights of the text's coverage include: A sustained analysis of the U.S. Constitution as a response to security threats in the 1780s, providing a strong historical foundation on and springboard for discussion of this basic document in terms of national security powers; Comprehensive coverage of the congressional role overseeing all other policy instruments, showing Congress as an active player in all aspects of foreign policy; Analysis of the full spectrum of agencies and activities involved in foreign economic policy, covering the numerous organizations involved in foreign economic policy, the weak coordinating mechanisms, and the various processes (sanctions, trade, foreign assistance, direct investment) used as policy tools; A consistent framework for analyzing each instrument (authorities, capabilities, personnel, culture, internal factions, and the role of Congress), which makes comparative analyses of U.S. institutions simple and direct; An illuminating overview of the budget process through both the executive and legislative branches, acknowledging the budget process as a shared policy tool, with conflict and feedback, rather than as a linear process; A discussion of homeland security instruments and international organizations used as policy tools, highlighting the relevance of these new and often overlooked instruments; and A survey of recommendations for reform and the difficulties involved, providing possible explanations of foreign policy failures and alternative organizations and processes. This must-have text for courses on American foreign policy will be a crucial reference that students will keep on the shelf long after the last class.

Table of Contents

Tables, Figures, and Boxes	p. xv
Preface	p. xix
The Purpose of This Book	p. xix
Organization of the Book	p. xx
Acknowledgments	p. xxi
About the Author	p. xxiii
Introduction: Tools and Tool Users	p. 1
U.S. Foreign Policy in Action	p. 2
How Foreign Policy Is Made	p. 3
The Foreign Policy Toolkit	p. 4
How This Book Is Organized	p. 5
Assembling the Tools
The Framers' Design	p. 7
America Under the Articles of Confederation	p. 8
Behind Closed Doors in Philadelphia	p. 13
The New Framework	p. 16
The Battles for Ratification	p. 20
First Congress and First Precedents	p. 22
Selected Resources	p. 26
Following the Blueprint	p. 27
The Washington Administration, 1789-1797	p. 27
John Adams and the Quasi-War With France, 1797-1801	p. 30
Republican Government, 1800-1828	p. 30
The Slavery Factor	p. 32
James Polk, Master Strategist, 1845-1849	p. 34
America and the World, 1850-1861	p. 35
Foreign Policy in the Civil War, 1861-1865	p. 36
Congressional Dominance in the Gilded Age, 1865-1898	p. 37
Imperial Ambitions, 1898-1913	p. 39
Woodrow Wilson's Militant Idealism, 1913-1921	p. 43
Retrenchment in the Jazz Age, 1920-1939	p. 45
Franklin D. Roosevelt in Peace and War, 1933-1945	p. 47
The Cold War and After, 1946-	p. 49
Selected Resources	p. 52
The President's Toolkit	p. 54
Presidential Power	p. 55
Legal Constraints	p. 57
Political Constraints	p. 58
Other Constraints on Presidential Choice	p. 59
Historical Consensus and Dissensus	p. 60
Presidential Management Styles	p. 61
Sources of Information	p. 62
Creation of the White House-Centered National Security Council System	p. 65
The National Security Council and Staff	p. 67
Role of the National Security Adviser	p. 71
Other White House Operatives	p. 72
National Security Council System: The Scowcroft Model	p. 74
National Security Council Culture	p. 76
The Paper Flow	p. 76
Crisis Management	p. 78
Process Matters	p. 78
Foreign Policy Is a Never-Ending Process	p. 81
Critiques of the Current National Security Council System	p. 82
Case Study: Obama's Review of Afghanistan Policy	p. 83
Selected Resources	p. 85
Congress's Toolkit	p. 86
How Congress Acts	p. 87
The Legal Tool	p. 88
Substantive Versus Procedural Laws	p. 89
The Money Tool	p. 91
The Treaty Tool	p. 92
The Nomination Tool	p. 94
Oversight Tools	p. 97
Informal Tools	p. 98
Congressional Culture	p. 99
House Culture	p. 101
Senate Culture	p. 101
Committee Cultures and Dynamics	p. 102
Why Congress Acts That Way	p. 103
Member Motivations	p. 104
Public Opinion	p. 105
Congressional Inputs to the National Security Council System	p. 106
The Effort to Legislate War Powers	p. 107
Inconsistency in Practice on War Powers	p. 110
Tying the President's Hands	p. 111
Should Politics Stop at Water's Edge?	p. 111
Case Study: Congress and Cuban Independence, 1898	p. 112
Case Study: Congress Struggles With Apartheid and South Africa	p. 115
Selected Resources	p. 117
Shared Tools of the Budgetary Process	p. 119
Making Policy by Making Budgets	p. 120
Evolution of the Budget Process	p. 122
Role and Culture of the Office of Management and Budget	p. 124
The Official Budget Process in the Executive Branch	p. 124
The Official Budget Process in Congress	p. 126
The Money Committees and Their Cultures	p. 128
The Usual, Real Budget Process	p. 130
Playing Games With the Budget Tool	p. 131
Linking Money to Policy	p. 133
Contingency Funds	p. 133
Transfers and Reprogramming	p. 134
Secret Spending	p. 136
Causes and Cures for Dysfunction	p. 136
Case Study: Budget Enforcement Act of 1990	p. 137
Selected Resources	p. 140
Using the Tools
The Diplomatic Instrument	p. 141
The Nature of Diplomacy and the Diplomatic Mission	p. 141
Growth and Professionalization of the State Department	p. 143
Organization	p. 145
The Country Team	p. 148
Leadership	p. 150
The Changing Foreign Service	p. 153
State Department Culture	p. 155
Representation and Engagement	p. 156
Negotiations	p. 158
Analyzing and Reporting	p. 158
Public Diplomacy	p. 159
Citizen Services	p. 159
Other Operations	p. 160
Policy Making	p. 160
Bureaucratic Rivalries Among State, Defense, and the National Security Council	p. 162
Congress and the State Department	p. 163
Case Study: Building the Gulf War Coalition, 1990	p. 166
Selected Resources	p. 168
The Economic Instruments	p. 170
Carrots and Sticks	p. 173
A Disorganized Toolkit	p. 173
The Globalized Economy	p. 174
Key Institutions	p. 175
National Economic Council	p. 177
Federal Reserve	p. 178
Department of the Treasury	p. 178
United States Trade Representative	p. 179
Department of Commerce	p. 180
Department of State	p. 180
United States Agency for International Development	p. 181
Department of Defense	p. 181
Department of Agriculture	p. 182
Other Organizations	p. 182
Key Processes	p. 182
Sanctions	p. 183
Trade	p. 185
Exports	p. 186
Imports	p. 188
Foreign Assistance	p. 189
Financial Flows	p. 192
Foreign Direct Investment	p. 195
Case Study: The Korean-U.S. Free Trade Agreement	p. 197
Selected Resources	p. 199
The Military Instrument	p. 200
Nature of the Military Instrument	p. 200
Growth and Professionalization of the Military	p. 204
Consolidation, Nuclear Weapons, and Jointness	p. 206
Leadership	p. 210
People in Many Uniforms	p. 214
Organization	p. 216
The Culture of the Pentagon	p. 219
Use of the Military Instrument	p. 220
Warfighting	p. 221
Engaging With Foreign Governments and Militaries	p. 222
The 911 Force	p. 223
Planning and Policy Making	p. 223
Recurring Tensions	p. 224
The Pentagon in the Interagency Process	p. 225
Congress and the Pentagon	p. 226
Case Study: Planning for the 2003 Iraq Invasion	p. 227
Selected Resources	p. 230
The Secret Intelligence Instruments	p. 231
Secret Tools	p. 232
The Long History of Secret Programs	p. 233
Major Institutions	p. 234
Office of the Director of National Intelligence	p. 234
Central Intelligence Agency	p. 236
Pentagon Management	p. 237
Other Intelligence Community Components	p. 238
Major Processes	p. 239
Collection	p. 239
Analysis	p. 240
Operations	p. 244
What Presidents Want	p. 249
Congressional Oversight	p. 251
Selected Resources	p. 254
The Homeland Security Instruments	p. 255
A Brief History of United States Homeland Security	p. 255
Creation of the Homeland Security System	p. 257
The Defense Mission	p. 260
Intelligence Collection and Integration Mission	p. 261
Critical Infrastructure Mission	p. 262
Cybersecurity Mission	p. 263
Biological Protection Mission	p. 264
Border Security and Immigration Missions	p. 265
Transportation Security Mission	p. 265
Emergency Preparedness and Response Missions	p. 266
The Anomaly of the Secret Service	p. 267
Culture of the Department of Homeland Security	p. 267
Homeland Security Council	p. 268
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Homeland Security System	p. 268
Congress and Homeland Security	p. 269
International Aspects of Homeland Security	p. 270
Areas of Presidential Choice	p. 271
Case Study: U.S.-Mexican Collaboration on Security	p. 272
Selected Resources	p. 273
The International Institutions Instrument	p. 274
The Role of International Institutions	p. 275
Ad Hoc Versus Institutional Multilateralism	p. 277
International Institutions	p. 278
United Nations	p. 278
Congress and the United Nations	p. 283
International Atomic Energy Agency	p. 284
Regional Institutions	p. 285
North Atlantic Treaty Organization	p. 285
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe	p. 287
Organization of American States	p. 288
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation	p. 289
Economic Institutions	p. 290
G-8 and G-20	p. 291
The International Monetary Fund and Other International Financial Institutions	p. 292
World Trade Organization	p. 294
International Courts	p. 295
Major Nonstate Actors	p. 296
Case Study: Using the North Atlantic Treaty Organization as an Instrument of Foreign Policy in Libya, 2011	p. 297
Selected Resources	p. 300
Constraints and Limitations on the U.S. Toolkit
Elephants in the Workshop	p. 301
Public Opinion	p. 302
The Elite, Attentive, and Mass Publics	p. 303
Polling Opinions	p. 304
Presidential Message and Public Support	p. 305
The Bully Pulpit and Framing	p. 306
Media	p. 306
Shaping the Media	p. 307
Leaks as a Policy Making Tool	p. 308
The Media as the Shaper	p. 309
Shrinking Coverage and Shrinking Audience	p. 310
Advocacy Groups	p. 311
Stakeholders	p. 312
Ethnic Identity or Affinity Groups	p. 313
Lobbyists	p. 316
Contributors	p. 318
Impact of Lobbyists and Contributors	p. 320
Think Tanks	p. 321
Selected Resources	p. 323
Missing Tools	p. 324
Legacy of Reform Proposals	p. 324
Recommended New Tools	p. 328
New Organizations and Capabilities	p. 329
New Processes	p. 332
New Emphases and Priorities	p. 333
Impediments to Reform	p. 335
Mistakes	p. 335
Entrenched Interests	p. 336
Genuine Dilemmas	p. 337
Lack of Resources	p. 338
Warning Lessons	p. 338
The Changing Foreign Policy Toolkit	p. 339
Notes	p. 343
Index	p. 365
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