Analytical Characterization Of Aluminum, Steel, And Superalloys

by MacKenzie; D. Scott

• ISBN13: 9780824758431
• ISBN10: 0824758439
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2005-10-10
• Publisher: CRC Press

Summary

This one-of-a-kind reference examines conventional and advanced methodologies for the quantitative evaluation of properties and characterization of microstructures in metals. It presents methods for uncovering valuable information including precipitate mechanisms, kinetics, stability, crystallographic orientation, the effects of thermo-mechanical processing, and residual stress. The editors of Analytical Characterization of Aluminum, Steel, and Superalloysenlist top industry researchers and practitioners from around the world to analyze the methodologies presented in their areas of expertise. Following traditional metallography methods, the book features an atlas of microstructures for aluminum, steel, and superalloys. The text also examines several material characterization methods rarely covered in other references, provides the framework for using advanced laboratory techniques, and discusses component failure identification methods and other measurements that are crucial to components manufacturing. Enabling the evolution of stronger and more function-specific compositions, Analytical Characterization of Aluminum, Steel, and Superalloysoffers engineers, researchers, and materials scientists an invaluable reference of many advanced laboratory techniques in the context of characterization and property evaluation methodologies for metals and alloys.

Table of Contents

Ferrous Metallography	1	(54)
George F. Vander Voort
Introduction	1	(1)
Macroscopical Examination	2	(10)
Etching Procedure	5	(6)
Contact Print Methods	11	(1)
Microscopic Examination	12	(22)
Sampling	13	(1)
Sectioning	14	(2)
Mounting	16	(2)
Edge Preservation	18	(5)
Conductive Mounts	23	(1)
Grinding	24	(4)
Grinding Media	28	(1)
Grinding Equipment	28	(1)
Polishing	29	(1)
Manual Polishing	29	(1)
Automated Polishing	29	(1)
Polishing Cloths	30	(1)
Polishing Abrasives	31	(1)
Preparation Procedures	32	(2)
Preparation Methods for Iron-Based Alloys	34	(6)
The ``Traditional'' Method	34	(1)
Contemporary Methods	34	(4)
Retention of Graphite in Gray Iron	38	(1)
Chemical Polishing	38	(2)
Electrolytic Polishing	40	(1)
Etching	40	(15)
Nital vs. Picral	48	(1)
Special-Purpose Etchants	49	(3)
References	52	(3)
Atlas of Aluminum Microstructures	55	(102)
George F. Vander Voort
Introduction	55	(1)
1XXX Series Alloys (>99% Al)	56	(1)
2XXX Series Alloys (Al--Cu)	56	(1)
3XXX Series Alloys (Al--Mn)	57	(1)
4XXX Series Alloys (Al--Si)	57	(1)
5XXX Series Alloys (Al--Mg)	57	(1)
6XXX Series Alloys (Al--Mg--Si)	57	(1)
7XXX Series Alloys (Al--Zn--Mg)	57	(100)
Microstructure of Ferrous Alloys	157	(78)
George F. Vander Voort
Introduction	157	(1)
Terminology	157	(1)
Etchants	158	(1)
Microstructural Constituents	158	(4)
Alpha Iron and Ferrite	158	(1)
Gamma Iron and Austenite	159	(1)
Delta Iron and Delta Ferrite	159	(1)
Graphite and Cementite	160	(1)
Austenite Transformation Products	160	(1)
Other Constituents	161	(1)
Summary	162	(73)
Atlas of Micrographs--Superalloys	235	(58)
Goran Sjoberg
D. Scott MacKenzie
Thermal Analysis of Aluminum Alloys	293	(46)
Consuelo Garcia-Cordovilla
Enrique Louis
Introduction	293	(1)
Basic Principles	294	(1)
Instrumentation and Experimental Procedures	295	(4)
Instruments	295	(1)
Calibration	296	(1)
The Baseline	296	(1)
Temperature Calibration	297	(1)
Enthalpy	297	(1)
Specific Heat	297	(1)
Samples and Reference Material	298	(1)
Heating/Cooling Rates	298	(1)
Reaction Kinetics	299	(5)
The Reaction Rate	299	(2)
Obtaining Kinetic Parameters: The Peak Temperature Method	301	(1)
Determining Particle Size from DSC	302	(2)
General Rules for Interpreting DSC and DTA Curves	304	(3)
Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys	307	(15)
Al--Cu and Al--Cu--Mg Alloys	309	(4)
Al--Zn--Mg and Al--Zn-Mg--Cu Alloys	313	(4)
Al--Mg--Si and Al--Si--Mg Alloys	317	(2)
Al--Li Alloys	319	(3)
The Stability of Metallurgical States in Heat-Treatable Alloys	322	(1)
Nonheat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys	322	(4)
Aluminum Based Composites	326	(2)
Some Applications to Technological Problems	328	(3)
Solidification Curves	328	(1)
Alloy Development, Process Optimization, and Quality Control	328	(2)
Stress Corrosion Resistance of Al--Zn--Mg Welds	330	(1)
Concluding Remarks	331	(8)
Acknowledgments	332	(1)
References	332	(7)
X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of the Microstructure of Precipitating Al-Based Alloys	339	(16)
E. J. Mittemeijer
Introduction: The Role of the Microstructure	339	(1)
The Lattice Parameter of Al-Based Alloys: Analysis of Diffraction-Line Position	340	(9)
The Amount of Dissolved Solute: Analysis of Precipitation Kinetics	340	(4)
The Amount of Excess Vacancies	344	(2)
The Amount of Macrostrain	346	(3)
Crystallite Size and Microstrain: Analysis of Diffraction-Line Broadening	349	(3)
Crystallite Size and Microstrain in Initial and Final Microstructures	349	(2)
Crystallite Size and Microstrain During Precipitation	351	(1)
Conclusion	352	(3)
References	353	(2)
X-Ray Diffraction (Part II)	355	(74)
Leonid B. Ber
Introduction	356	(1)
Experimental	357	(1)
Diffractometer and Film Techniques	357	(1)
Local Methods	358	(1)
Phase Analysis (Qualitative and Quantitative)	358	(17)
Preparation of Specimens	358	(14)
Quantitative Phase Analysis of Polycrystalline Specimens	372	(3)
Methods of Lattice Spacing Determination	375	(6)
Instrumental Factors	378	(1)
X-Ray Pattern Recording Temperature	378	(1)
Geometrical Factors	378	(1)
Physical Factors	379	(1)
Cold Work	379	(1)
Grain Size and Texture	379	(2)
Residual (Zone) Stress Measurement	381	(6)
Instrumentation and Procedure	383	(2)
Calculation of Errors	385	(2)
Analysis of X-Ray Line Broadening	387	(10)
The Separation of PBXL	389	(1)
Instrumentation and Procedure	390	(1)
Approximating Method	391	(1)
Moments Method	392	(1)
Harmonic Analysis (HA) Method	393	(3)
X-Ray Fractography	396	(1)
Determination of Intragrain Mosaic Angles	397	(6)
Definition of the Beginning and Completion of Recrystallization, Determination of Grain (Subgrain) Sizes	403	(10)
Equipment	404	(1)
Examples of Roentgenograms for Different Types of Structures, Definition of the Beginning and Completion of Recrystallization	405	(5)
Definition of grain size (L) and subgrain size (I)	410	(1)
Method 1	410	(1)
Method 2	411	(1)
Method 3	411	(1)
Practical recommendations	412	(1)
A Study of Aging of Aluminum Alloys by Monocrystal Methods	413	(16)
Experimental Monocrystal XRD Technique	416	(3)
Obtaining Monocrystals	419	(1)
Obtaining the X-Ray Photographs	419	(1)
Orientation Determination and Subsequent Crystal Orientation	419	(3)
The Jong--Bouman Photograph: Examples for the Main Alloying Systems of Aged Aluminum Alloys	422	(4)
References	426	(3)
Residual Stress Measurement	429	(44)
Clayton O. Ruud
Introduction	430	(3)
Need for Residual Stress Measurements	433	(1)
Nature of Residual Stresses	434	(1)
Stress Measurement	434	(1)
Destructive Measurement Procedures (Stress Relaxation Techniques)	435	(22)
Introduction to Destructive Procedures	435	(1)
Generic Destructive Procedure	436	(1)
Stress Field Conditions	436	(1)
Strain Measurement Technique	436	(1)
Preparation for Strain Measurement	437	(1)
Isolation of Gaged Element	437	(1)
Post Stress Relaxation Measurement	437	(1)
Stress Field Condition Assumptions and Reconstruction	437	(1)
Uniaxial Conditions	437	(1)
Biaxial Conditions	438	(4)
Triaxial Conditions	442	(11)
Sectioning and Material Removal Methods	453	(1)
Strain Measurement Methods	454	(1)
Mechanical Gages	454	(1)
Electrical Resistance Strain Gages	455	(1)
Brittle Coatings	455	(1)
Optical Gages	455	(1)
Laser Methods	455	(1)
Birefringent Methods	456	(1)
Diffraction Methods	456	(1)
Ultrasonic Methods	456	(1)
Magnetic Methods	456	(1)
Chemical Methods	456	(1)
Semidestructive Procedures	457	(2)
Introduction	457	(1)
Blind Hole Drilling and Ring Coring	457	(1)
Indentation Methods	458	(1)
Spot Annealing	459	(1)
Nondestructive Procedures	459	(7)
Introduction	459	(1)
X-Ray Diffraction	460	(2)
Neutron Diffraction	462	(1)
Ultrasonic Velocity	463	(1)
Principle	464	(1)
Limitations and Applications	464	(1)
Magnetic Barkhausen Noise	465	(1)
Conclusions and Recommendations	466	(7)
References	466	(7)
Application of Transmission Electron Microscopy to Materials Problems	473	(46)
D. Scott MacKenzie
Brief History	474	(2)
Advantages of the TEM	476	(3)
Resolution	476	(1)
Interaction of Electrons with Matter	477	(1)
Depth of Field	477	(1)
Diffraction	477	(2)
Limitations of the TEM	479	(1)
Sampling	479	(1)
Interpreting TEM Images	479	(1)
Electron Beam Damage and Safety	479	(1)
Specimen Preparation	480	(1)
The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)	480	(9)
The Illumination System	480	(1)
Thermonic Emission	480	(1)
Field Emission	481	(1)
Comparison of Sources	481	(2)
The Lenses and Stage	483	(2)
The Imaging System	485	(1)
Diffraction Imaging	485	(1)
Selected Area Diffraction (SAD)	486	(1)
Convergent Beam Electron Diffraction (CBED)	486	(1)
Bright and Dark Field Imaging	487	(2)
Specimen Preparation	489	(5)
Prethinning	489	(2)
Electro-Jet Polishing	491	(1)
Apparatus	491	(2)
Electrolytes	493	(1)
Safety	494	(1)
Calibration of the TEM	494	(5)
Magnification Calibration	494	(2)
Camera Length Calibration	496	(1)
Correlation of Image and Diffraction Patterns (Magnetic Rotation)	497	(2)
Examples of the Use of the TEM in Material Problems	499	(11)
Characterization of a Mn--N Nitride Formed in an Fe--Mn--N Alloy	499	(3)
Evolution of the Ω Phase in Al--Cu--Mg--Ag Aluminum Alloys	502	(1)
TEM Characterization of GT2100 Wrought Nickel-Based Superalloy	503	(1)
Effect of Copper in Al--Mg--Si--(Cu) Aluminum Alloys	504	(4)
Dodecahedral Structures in Quasi-Crystals	508	(2)
Concluding Remarks	510	(9)
Appendices for Chapter 9	511	(1)
Bravis Lattices	511	(1)
Crystallographic Formula Interplanar Spacings	512	(1)
Standard Spot Patterns	512	(5)
References	517	(2)
Electron Backscatter Diffraction of Aluminum Alloys	519	(56)
David P. Field
Mukul Kumar
Introduction	520	(2)
EBSD System Overview	522	(7)
SEM/Electron Source Considerations	522	(1)
Electron Beam Integrity	522	(1)
Sample Stage	523	(1)
SEM Port Configuration	523	(1)
Mechanical Interface/Phosphor Screens	523	(1)
Camera System	524	(1)
Brief Overview of the Physics and Mathematics of EBSD	525	(2)
Automated Band Detection	527	(1)
EBSD Image Calibration	528	(1)
Multi-Phase Analysis	529	(4)
Phase Discrimination	530	(1)
Phase Identification	531	(2)
Application to Al Integrated Circuit Interconnects	533	(7)
Experiments and Results	534	(1)
Comparison of Microstructures and MTFs in Al--Cu	534	(3)
Investigation of Pure Al Films Deposited by the PIB Technique	537	(1)
Structure Evolution as a Function of Line Width for RIE and Damascene Processed Lines	537	(3)
Analysis of Cu Damascene Lines	540	(1)
Discussion	540	(1)
Application to Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum	540	(8)
Experimental Details	541	(1)
Results	542	(2)
Top Plane, Under Tool Shoulder	544	(1)
Mid-Plane	545	(1)
Bottom Plane, Under Tool Pin	546	(1)
Conclusions	547	(1)
Applications to Dislocation Structure Observation in Aluminum	548	(6)
Experiments and Results	548	(4)
Discussion	552	(1)
Conclusions	553	(1)
Applications to Grain Boundary Networks	554	(21)
Categorization of Boundaries	555	(1)
Typing of Triple Junctions	556	(4)
Extraction of the Random Boundary Network	560	(2)
Acknowledgments	562	(1)
Appendices for Chapter 10	562	(1)
Chronology of EBSD Development	562	(1)
Orientation Mapping	563	(1)
Phase ID	564	(1)
Applications of EBSD in Aluminum Research	565	(4)
References	569	(6)
Texture Measurement and Analysis	575	(32)
Cevdet Noyan
Helmut Schaeben
Conal E. Murray
Introduction	575	(1)
Definitions	576	(1)
General Principles	577	(2)
Definition and Description of Textures	579	(5)
Introduction to Texture Analysis with X-Ray Diffraction Data	580	(1)
Introduction to Texture Analysis with EBSP Data	581	(3)
Mathematical Texture Analysis	584	(6)
Mathematical Texture Analysis with Diffraction Data	584	(1)
Harmonics	584	(1)
Harmonic Method	584	(1)
Wavelet Texture Analysis	585	(1)
Texture Modeling with Texture Components	586	(1)
Discrete, Algebraic Methods	587	(1)
Mathematical Texture Analysis with EBSP Data	588	(1)
Spatial Statistics of Linear Functionals	589	(1)
Orientation Probability Density Estimation	589	(1)
Parametric Statistics and Tests	590	(1)
Diffraction Techniques for Measuring Texture	590	(8)
Reciprocal Space Representations of Texture	591	(3)
X-Ray Texture Techniques	594	(3)
Areal Detector Scans	597	(1)
Backscattered Techniques	598	(5)
Summary	603	(4)
References	604	(3)
Microscopy and Microspectroscopy of Aluminum and Ferrous Alloys and Their Surface Treatments	607	(34)
Clive R. Clayton
Gary P. Halada
Pelagia Gouma
Surface and Interface Spectroscopy	608	(9)
Introduction	608	(1)
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy: SIMS	608	(3)
X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy: XPS	611	(3)
Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES)	614	(3)
Synchrotron Bulk and Near Surface Spectroscopy	617	(11)
Synchrotron Infrared Microspectroscopy (SIRMS)	617	(1)
Heterogeneous Chromate Conversion Coatings on AA2024-T3	618	(2)
Chemistry and Mechanisms of Formation of the Chromate Conversion Coating	620	(2)
Synchrotron IR Microspectroscopy of Ferrous Alloy Surfaces and Coatings	622	(1)
Raman Microspectroscopy of Aluminum and Ferrous Alloys	622	(1)
X-Ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) and Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS)	623	(2)
Structure During Aging of the CCC on AA2024-T3	625	(3)
Electron Microscopy and Microanalysis	628	(8)
Scanning Electron Microscopy and Microanalysis	629	(1)
Imaging Modes	629	(1)
Analytical Modes	629	(1)
Electron Channeling (Electron Back-Scatter Diffraction--EBSD)	630	(1)
Transmission Electron Microscopy and Microanalysis	630	(1)
Use of Analytical TEM for Corrosion Studies	631	(1)
STEM Mapping for Precipitate Analysis	631	(1)
Quantitative Electron Microscopy	632	(1)
TEM Analysis of Quasi-Crystalline Phases	633	(3)
Conclusion	636	(5)
References	636	(5)
Electron Momentum Spectroscopy	641	(20)
Anatoli Kheifets
Maarten Vos
Erich Weigold
Introduction	641	(3)
The Relation between EMS and the Spectral Function	644	(1)
Experimental Technique	645	(3)
Theoretical Descriptions of the Electronic Structure	648	(3)
Independent Particle Approximation	649	(1)
Electron Correlations Models	650	(1)
Electronic Structure of Aluminum -- Comparison of EMS Measurements with Theory	651	(7)
Core States	651	(1)
Conduction Band	652	(6)
Conclusions	658	(3)
References	658	(3)
Positron Annihilation of Defects in Metals and Alloys	661	(16)
H. P. Leighly, Jr.
Introduction	661	(2)
Experimental Techniques	663	(12)
Lifetime Measurements	663	(1)
Well-Annealed Specimens	663	(3)
Deformed Specimens	666	(1)
Angular Correlation	667	(2)
Line Shape Measurements	669	(3)
S Parameter Spectroscopy	672	(1)
Retention of Vacancies from Quenching	672	(2)
S Parameter Studies of Transformations	674	(1)
Other Transformations in Metals and Alloys Examined by the S Parameter Technique	674	(1)
Experimental Equipment	675	(1)
Summary	675	(2)
References	676	(1)
Atom Probe Characterization of Nanoscale Precipitates in Aluminum Alloys	677	(24)
K. Hono
Introduction	677	(1)
Overview of the Atom Probe Technique	678	(3)
Atom Probe Studies of Precipitation Processes	681	(16)
Al--Cu Alloy	681	(2)
Al--Cu Alloy with Trace Addition of Sn	683	(1)
Al--Cu Alloy with Trace Addition of Mg and Ag	684	(4)
Al--Cu--Li Alloy with Trace Addition of Mg and Ag	688	(1)
Al--Cu--Mg Alloys	689	(2)
Al--Mg--Si Alloys	691	(2)
Al--Zn--Mg Alloys	693	(1)
Rapidly Solidified Nanocomposite Ultrahigh Strength Aluminum Alloys	694	(3)
Concluding Remarks	697	(4)
Acknowledgment	697	(1)
References	697	(4)
Image Processing for Fault Detection in Aluminum Castings	701	(38)
Domingo Mery
Dieter Filbert
Thomas Jaeger
Introduction	702	(1)
Digital Image Processing in X-Ray Testing	703	(18)
Image Formation	704	(2)
Preprocessing	706	(1)
Noise Removal	706	(1)
Contrast Enhancement	707	(1)
Shading Correction	708	(1)
Restoration of Blur Caused by Motion	709	(1)
Segmentation	710	(1)
Median Filtering	711	(2)
Edge Detection and Region Finding	713	(1)
Feature Extraction and Selection	714	(1)
Feature Extraction	714	(1)
Feature Selection	715	(1)
Classification	716	(1)
Flaw Simulation	717	(1)
Mask Superimposition	718	(1)
CAD Models for Casting and Flaw	718	(2)
CAD Models for Flaws Only	720	(1)
Defect Detection in Castings: State of the Art	721	(12)
Reference Methods	722	(1)
The MODAN-Filter	722	(3)
Signal Synchronized Filter	725	(1)
The PXV 5000 Radioscopic Test System	726	(1)
Radioscopic Testing System SABA 2000T	727	(1)
Methods without a priori Knowledge	727	(1)
ISAR Radioscopic Testing System	727	(1)
Gayer et al.'s Method	728	(1)
Kehoe and Parken's Method	728	(1)
Boerner and Strecker's Method	729	(1)
Lawson and Parker's Method	730	(1)
Mery and Filbert's Method	730	(1)
Industrial Computer Tomography	731	(2)
Conclusions	733	(6)
References	734	(5)
Index	739