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A rapidly changing and expanding livestock and poultry production sector is causing a range of environmental problems on local, regional and global scales. Animal Manure Recycling: Treatment and Management presents an accessible overview of environmentally friendly technologies for managing animal manure more efficiently and in a sustainable manner.
This book describes the physical and chemical characteristics of animal manure and microbial processes,featuring detailed examples and case studies showing how this knowledge can be used in practice. Readers are introduced to the sustainable use of animal manure for crop fertilisation and soil amelioration. Environmentally friendly technologies for reducing emissions of ammonia, odour and the greenhouse gases nitrous oxide and methane are presented, and reduction of plant nutrient losses using separation technologies is introduced. Finally and most importantly, the book describes methods to commercialise and transfer knowledge about innovations to end-users.
Topics covered include:
Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii
1 Animal Manure – From Waste to Raw Materials and Goods 1
Sven Gjedde Sommer
References 4
2 Animal Production and Animal Manure Management 5
Sven Gjedde Sommer and Morten Lykkegaard Christensen
2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Housing, Feedlots and Exercise Areas 7
2.2.1 Cattle 7
2.2.2 Pigs 11
2.2.3 Poultry 12
2.2.4 Integrated Production Systems 14
2.3 Management of Manure 15
2.3.1 Deep Litter Management 15
2.3.2 Slurry Management 16
2.3.3 Separation of Slurry 17
2.4 Systems Analysis Method for Assessing Mass Flows 18
2.4.1 Mass Balance and Process Specifications 19
2.5 Summary 23
References 23
3 Regulations on Animal Manure Management 25
Sven Gjedde Sommer, Oene Oenema, Teruo Matsunaka and Lars Stoumann Jensen
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Environmental Issues 26
3.3 Need for Government Regulations 29
3.4 Global Regulation – Multilateral Environmental Agreements 30
3.5 Regional Regulations – Exemplified with EU Directives and Regulations 31
3.5.1 EU CAP and its Reforms 31
3.5.2 EU Environmental Directives 32
3.5.3 Reducing Ammonia Emissions from Manure Management in Europe 33
3.6 National Regulations on Agricultural Pollution 34
3.6.1 United States 34
3.6.2 Japan 35
3.6.3 Denmark 36
3.7 Summary 38
References 39
4 Manure Characterisation and Inorganic Chemistry 41
Morten Lykkegaard Christensen and Sven Gjedde Sommer
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Livestock Manure Categories 42
4.3 Physical Characterisation of Manure 45
4.3.1 Particle Size 45
4.3.2 Manure Density and Viscosity 46
4.3.3 Electrochemical Properties 47
4.4 Manure Inorganic Chemistry 49
4.4.1 Ions in Solution 50
4.4.2 pH Buffer System 51
4.4.3 Volatile Components 55
4.4.4 Absorbed Exchangeable Cations 58
4.4.5 Crystals and Adsorbed Ions 59
4.5 Summary 63
References 63
5 Manure Organic Matter – Characteristics and Microbial Transformations 67
Lars Stoumann Jensen and Sven Gjedde Sommer
5.1 Introduction 67
5.2 Manure Organic Matter Composition 68
5.2.1 Carbon 69
5.2.2 Nitrogen 70
5.2.3 Characterisation of Manure Organic Matter 71
5.3 Manure Microbiology 73
5.4 Microbial and Biochemical Transformations in Manure 75
5.4.1 Aerobic Decomposition of Organic Matter 78
5.4.2 Anaerobic Decomposition of Organic Matter 80
5.5 Transformations of Nitrogen 82
5.5.1 Urea and Uric Acid Transformation 83
5.5.2 Ammonification or Mineralisation – Organic Nitrogen Transformation
to Ammonium 84
5.5.3 Immobilisation 84
5.5.4 Nitrification 85
5.5.5 Nitrification–Denitrification Coupling 86
5.6 Summary 87
References 87
6 Sanitation and Hygiene in Manure Management 91
Bj¨orn Vinner°as
6.1 Hygiene Risks Associated with Manure Management 91
6.2 Why Must the Pathogens in Manure be Managed? 92
6.2.1 Manure Treatment 93
6.2.2 Expression of Pathogen Reduction 93
6.3 Manure Treatment Alternatives 95
6.3.1 Storage 96
6.3.2 Anaerobic Treatment 96
6.3.3 Composting 97
6.4 Chemical Treatment 99
6.4.1 Ammonia Treatment 99
6.4.2 Ammonia Sanitisation at the Farm Level 102
6.5 Summary 102
References 103
7 Solid–Liquid Separation of Animal Slurry 105
Morten Lykkegaard Christensen, Knud Villy Christensen and Sven Gjedde Sommer
7.1 Introduction 105
7.2 Removal and Separation Efficiency 106
7.3 In-House Separation 107
7.4 Solid–Liquid Separation of Manure Slurry 108
7.4.1 Sedimentation 108
7.4.2 Centrifugation 111
7.4.3 Drainage 113
7.4.4 Filtration with Pressure 116
7.4.5 User Demand on Performance of the Technology 118
7.5 Pre-Treatment: Chemical Additives 119
7.5.1 Precipitation, Coagulation and Flocculation 119
7.5.2 Struvite Crystallisation 122
7.6 Post-Treatment: Separation Techniques 124
7.6.1 Evaporation of Water and Stripping of Ammonia 124
7.6.2 Membranes 125
7.7 Summary 129
References 129
8 Gaseous Emissions of Ammonia and Malodorous Gases 131
Sven Gjedde Sommer and Anders Feilberg
8.1 Introduction 131
8.2 Characteristics of Ammonia and Hydrogen Sulfide 132
8.3 Processes Involved in Emission 133
8.3.1 Liquid and Air Diffusion Processes 134
8.3.2 Air–Water Equilibrium 136
8.3.3 Acid–Base Equilibrium 138
8.4 Two-Layer Transport and Release Model 141
8.4.1 Gas or Liquid Film Controlling Transfer 144
8.5 Assessment of Gas Release and Emission 147
8.5.1 Calculations Using Emission Coefficients 147
8.5.2 Gas Release and Chemical Equilibrium 148
8.5.3 Effects of Air Turbulence and Surface Component Concentration on Emissions 149
8.6 Summary 150
References 151
9 Ammonia and Malodorous Gases: Sources and Abatement Technologies 153
Anders Feilberg and Sven Gjedde Sommer
9.1 Introduction 153
9.2 Measurement Methods 154
9.2.1 Odour Measurement 155
9.2.2 Relationships Between Odour and Odorants 156
9.3 Ammonia Emissions 157
9.3.1 Pig and Cattle Houses – Slatted Floor and Slurry Pits 157
9.3.2 Pig and Cattle Houses – Solid Floor and Deep Litter 159
9.3.3 Poultry Houses 159
9.3.4 Ammonia Emissions from Manure Storage 161
9.3.5 Field-Applied Manure 162
9.4 Odour Emissions 164
9.4.1 Livestock Buildings 165
9.4.2 Volatile Organic Compounds and Hydrogen Sulphide Emissions from
Livestock Production 166
9.5 Technologies and Additives to Reduce NH3 and Odour Emissions 167
9.5.1 Air Treatment Techniques 167
9.5.2 Slurry Additives 170
9.5.3 Feed Additives 171
9.6 Summary 172
References 173
10 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Animal Manures and Technologies for their Reduction 177
Sven Gjedde Sommer, Tim J. Clough, David Chadwick and Søren O. Petersen
10.1 Introduction 177
10.2 Processes of Methane and Nitrous Oxide Production 179
10.3 Methane Production from Manure 180
10.3.1 Effect of Temperature 181
10.3.2 Manure Storage Methods 181
10.3.3 Field-Applied Manure 182
10.4 Nitrous Oxide Production from Manure 183
10.4.1 Stored Manure 183
10.4.2 Field-Applied Manure 185
10.5 Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions 186
10.5.1 Reduced Inoculum 188
10.5.2 Mitigation Technologies and Management 188
10.5.3 Reducing Volatile Solids and Nitrogen 188
10.5.4 Additives 189
10.5.5 Covers 190
10.5.6 Whole System Analysis of Technologies to Reduce Greenhouse Gases 190
10.6 Summary 191
References 192
11 Nutrient Leaching and Runoff from Land Application of Animal Manure and Measures
for Reduction 195
Peter Sørensen and Lars Stoumann Jensen
11.1 Introduction 195
11.2 Leaching and Runoff of Manure Nitrogen 199
11.2.1 Leaching of Manure Nitrogen in the First Year after Application and Methods
for Reducing the Risk 199
11.2.2 Long-Term Leaching of Manure Nitrogen 201
11.2.3 Nitrogen Losses via Runoff and Strategies for Reducing the Risk 203
11.3 Leaching and Runoff of Manure Phosphorus 203
11.3.1 Leaching of Manure Phosphorus 204
11.3.2 Phosphorus Losses via Runoff and Strategies for Reducing the Risk 205
11.4 Leaching and Runoff of Potassium 207
11.5 Summary 208
References 208
12 Technologies and Logistics for Handling, Transport and Distribution of Animal Manures 211
Claus Grøn Sørensen, Sven Gjedde Sommer, Dionysis Bochtis and Alan Rotz
12.1 Introduction 211
12.2 Overview of Manure Systems 213
12.3 Animal Manure Characteristics 213
12.4 Removal from Animal Houses 214
12.4.1 Solid Manure 214
12.4.2 Liquid Manure and Slurry 217
12.5 Manure Storage 217
12.5.1 Solid Manure Stores 217
12.5.2 Liquid Manure Stores 218
12.5.3 Stirring – Homogenising Liquid Manure 219
12.6 Transport of Manure 219
12.6.1 Liquid Manure Transport by Gravity 219
12.6.2 Transport of Slurry by Pumping 219
12.6.3 Tanker Transport 220
12.7 Application of Manure in the Field 220
12.7.1 Solid Manure Application 220
12.7.2 Liquid Manure Application 220
12.8 Manure Operations Management 222
12.8.1 Emptying the Animal House 222
12.8.2 Transport of Manure 224
12.8.3 Application in the Field 228
12.9 Farm Scenarios 232
12.10 Summary 234
References 234
13 Bioenergy Production 237
Sven Gjedde Sommer, Alastair James Ward and James J. Leahy
13.1 Introduction 237
13.2 Biomass and Energy 240
13.2.1 Operation of Combustion Plant 247
13.2.2 Pre-Treatment of Biomass 250
13.2.3 Energy Production Using Straw Residues 251
13.2.4 Residues from Incineration 252
13.3 Biogas Production 252
13.3.1 Biogas Process 253
13.3.2 Inhibition of the Biogas Production Process 256
13.3.3 Gas Production Rates 260
13.3.4 Biogas Digester Design 261
13.3.5 Dimensioning Digesters 264
13.3.6 Water Removal 266
13.3.7 Dihydrogen Sulfide Removal 266
13.3.8 Carbon Dioxide Removal and Upgrading Biogas for the Natural
Gas Network and Transport Fuels 266
13.4 Summary 267
References 267
14 Animal Manure Residue Upgrading and Nutrient Recovery in Biofertilisers 271
Lars Stoumann Jensen
14.1 Introduction 271
14.2 Manure Upgrading Options 272
14.3 Composting of Manures 276
14.3.1 Basic Composting Concepts 276
14.3.2 Control of the Composting Process 279
14.3.3 Biofertiliser Value of Manure-Based Composts in Agriculture 281
14.3.4 Use of Compost Products in the Non-Agricultural Sector 282
14.4 Drying and Pelletising Solid Manures 283
14.5 Manure Combustion and Gasification Ash 284
14.5.1 Ash Extraction and Conversion 285
14.6 Biochar from Pyrolysis or Carbonisation of Solid Manures 287
14.7 Precipitates and Mineral Concentrates from Liquid Manures 288
14.7.1 Struvite 288
14.7.2 Mineral Concentrates 288
14.8 Summary 290
References 291
15 Animal Manure Fertiliser Value, Crop Utilisation and Soil Quality Impacts 295
15.1 Introduction 295
15.2 Fertilisation and Crop Nutrient Use Efficiency 296
15.2.1 Source of Nitrogen Supply to Crops 297
15.2.2 Crop Yield Response to Fertiliser Nitrogen and the Economic Optimum 298
15.2.3 Crop Nitrogen Uptake Efficiency 299
15.3 Use of Animal Manures as Organic Fertilisers 302
15.3.1 Manure Chemical Properties and Effects on Soil Fertility 302
15.3.2 Manure Effects on Soil Biological Activity and Nutrient Turnover 304
15.3.3 Manure Effects on Soil Physical Properties 308
15.4 Manure Fertiliser Value as Affected by Application Method, Manure Type
and Treatment 308
15.4.1 MFE Value 309
15.4.2 Manure Application Methods 311
15.4.3 First-Year N-MFE Value for Various Manure Types 314
15.4.4 Long-Term Manure Nitrogen Turnover and Residual MFE Value 320
15.4.5 Strategies for Combined Manure and Mineral Fertiliser Use 323
15.5 Summary 324
References 325
16 Life Cycle Assessment of Manure Management Systems 329
Sander Bruun, Marieke ten Hoeve and Morten Birkved
16.1 Introduction 329
16.2 Introduction of Life Cycle Assessment Methodology 330
16.3 Four Phases of a Life Cycle Assessment 330
16.4 Goal and Scope 330
16.4.1 System Boundaries 331
16.4.2 Allocation Problems 331
16.4.3 Consequential versus Attributional Life Cycle Assessments 333
16.5 Inventory Analysis 334
16.6 Impact Assessment 336
16.6.1 Impact Category Definition, Classification and Characterisation 336
16.6.2 Normalisation 337
16.6.3 Weighting 338
16.7 Interpretation 339
16.8 Summary 339
References 341
17 Innovation in Animal Manure Management and Recycling 343
Thomas Schmidt
17.1 Introduction – Why is Innovation Important? 343
17.2 Innovation Typology 345
17.3 Identifying New Innovations 347
17.4 Assessing the Potential of New Innovations 350
17.5 Commercialisation of New Innovations 352
17.6 Summary 355
References 355
Index
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