Applied Photovoltaics

by Wenham,Stuart R

• ISBN13: 9781844074013
• ISBN10: 1844074013
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Nonspecific Binding
• Copyright: 2006-12-01
• Publisher: Routledge

Summary

Martin Green, a co-author of Earthscan's Applied Photovoltaics was one of the winners of the first Zayed Future Energy Prize announced at the World Future Energy Summit in Abu Dhabi on 19th January 2009. He received the award for his groundbreaking research on the efficiency of photovoltaics over many years. Commenting on the award, Martin Green said 'I firmly believe that many of our future energy needs can be addressed by photovoltaic technology. I am confident that this prize will help boost our efforts to accelerate the development, and market entry, of third-generation PV modules'. * A reliable, accessible and comprehensive guide for students of photovoltaic applications, brimming with information and carefully designed to meet the needs of its readers * Features exercises and recommends further reading at the end of each chapter, and provides detailed technical appendices with essential equations, data sources and standards Photovoltaics manufacturing and engineering has been growing at an exponential rate, and with this growth comes an increase in the number of people studying the subject. This has resulted in the demand for a reliable, accessible and comprehensive guide for students of photovoltaic (PV) applications and renewable energy engineering. The award-winning authors present a thoroughly considered textbook that is brimming with information and carefully designed to meet the needs of its readers. Along with exercises and recommended further reading at the end of each chapter, the book features a set of detailed technical appendices that provide essential equations, data sources and standards. The book is well illustrated and readable, with an abundance of diagrams and illustrations, and will provide the reader with all the information needed to work with photovoltaics. Related Titles: Understanding Renewable Energy Systems 1-84407-128-6 (2004) Planning and Installing Photovoltaic Systems 1-84407-131-6 (2004) Solar Energy Pocket Reference 1-84407-306-8 (2005)

Table of Contents

The Characteristics of Sunlight	p. 3
Particle-wave duality	p. 3
Blackbody radiation	p. 4
The sun and its radiation	p. 5
Solar radiation	p. 6
Direct and diffuse radiation	p. 8
The Greenhouse Effect	p. 10
Apparent motion of the sun	p. 11
Solar insolation data and estimation	p. 12
Extraterrestrial radiation	p. 13
Terrestrial global radiation on a horizontal surface	p. 13
Global and diffuse components	p. 19
Radiation on tilted surfaces	p. 22
Solar energy and photovoltaics	p. 25
Semiconductors and P-N Junctions	p. 31
Semiconductors	p. 31
The bond model	p. 32
The band model	p. 33
Doping	p. 33
Semiconductor types	p. 34
Crystalline silicon	p. 34
Multicrystalline silicon	p. 34
Amorphous silicon	p. 35
Thin film crystalline silicon	p. 36
Absorption of light	p. 36
Recombination	p. 37
p-n junctions	p. 38
The Behaviour of Solar Cells	p. 43
Effect of light	p. 43
Spectral response	p. 47
Effect of temperature	p. 49
Effect of parasitic resistances	p. 51
Cell Properties and Design	p. 57
Efficiencies	p. 57
Optical losses	p. 58
Recombination losses	p. 62
Top contact design	p. 63
Bulk and sheet resistivities	p. 63
Grid spacings	p. 65
Other losses	p. 67
Laboratory cells versus industry requirements	p. 69
The Laser Grooved, Buried Contact Solar Cell	p. 70
PV Cell Interconnection and Module Fabrication	p. 75
Module and circuit design	p. 75
Identical cells	p. 75
Non-Identical cells	p. 76
Non-identical modules	p. 76
Hot-spot heating	p. 79
Module structure	p. 83
Environmental protection	p. 84
Thermal considerations	p. 85
Electrical insulation	p. 88
Mechanical protection	p. 89
Degradation and failure modes	p. 89
Embodied energy and life cycle issues	p. 92
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System Components	p. 97
Introduction	p. 97
Stand-alone PV system design	p. 99
Solar modules	p. 100
Batteries	p. 101
Types	p. 101
Applications	p. 101
Requirements	p. 102
Efficiency	p. 102
Power rating and capacity	p. 102
Depth-of-discharge	p. 103
Lead-acid batteries	p. 103
Types	p. 103
Plate material	p. 103
Charging regimes	p. 104
Efficiencies	p. 105
Benchmarking and categorisation of similar use	p. 105
Other electrical charge storage methods	p. 106
Nickel-cadmium batteries	p. 106
Nickel-metal-hydride batteries	p. 106
Rechargeable alkaline manganese (RAM) batteries	p. 107
Lithium-ion and lithium-polymer batteries	p. 107
Redox-flow batteries	p. 107
Super capacitors	p. 107
Power conditioning and regulation	p. 108
Diodes	p. 108
Regulators	p. 108
Inverters	p. 112
Balance of system components	p. 114
Wiring	p. 114
Over-current protection	p. 114
Switches	p. 115
Connectors	p. 115
Earthing (grounding)	p. 116
Lightning protection	p. 116
Metering and alarms	p. 116
Battery housing and signage	p. 116
Housing of electronics	p. 117
Module mounting	p. 117
Designing Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems	p. 125
Introduction	p. 125
System availability	p. 126
Hybrid systems	p. 127
A simplified PV system design approach	p. 128
Sandia National Laboratory approach	p. 130
Australian Standard AS4509.2	p. 131
System design software	p. 132
Specific Purpose Photovoltaic Applications	p. 135
Introduction	p. 135
Space	p. 135
Marine navigational aids	p. 136
Telecommunications	p. 136
Transportable PV power supplies	p. 137
Radio telephone services	p. 138
Mobile phone networks	p. 139
Optical fibre networks	p. 139
Cathodic protection	p. 140
System sizing	p. 140
Controllers	p. 141
Power sources	p. 141
Water pumping	p. 144
Consumer products for indoor use	p. 147
Battery chargers	p. 148
Photovoltaics for developing countries	p. 148
Refrigeration	p. 149
Photovoltaic powered transport	p. 150
Solar cars	p. 151
Lighting	p. 152
Remote monitoring	p. 153
Direct-drive applications	p. 154
Electric fences	p. 155
Remote Area Power Supply Systems	p. 161
Household power systems	p. 161
The choice between AC and DC	p. 163
Appliances	p. 163
Consumer education	p. 167
Photovoltaic-diesel/petrol generator hybrid systems	p. 167
Diesel generators	p. 168
Petrol generators	p. 170
Hybrid system design	p. 170
RAPS system costs	p. 173
Portable RAPS systems	p. 173
Portable systems for remote aboriginal communities	p. 173
Integrated solar home systems	p. 174
Stationpower	p. 174
Reliability and maintenance	p. 175
Government assistance schemes	p. 175
Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems	p. 181
Introduction	p. 181
PV systems in buildings	p. 182
Module mounting approaches	p. 183
The inverter	p. 185
On-site storage	p. 186
Size and economics	p. 188
Other issues	p. 188
Utility applications for photovoltaics	p. 189
Design issues for central power stations	p. 190
Cell interconnection	p. 191
Safety	p. 193
Islanding	p. 194
The value of PV-generated electricity	p. 195
Energy credit	p. 195
Capacity credit	p. 197
Distributed benefits	p. 197
Example 1-Distribution Feeder 1103, Kerman, California	p. 199
Example 2-Kalbarri, Western Australia	p. 201
International PV programs	p. 201
USA	p. 201
Japan	p. 204
Europe	p. 204
India	p. 206
China	p. 206
Australia	p. 206
Photovoltaic Water Pumping System Components	p. 215
Introduction	p. 215
System configurations	p. 216
Water pumps	p. 218
Centrifugal pumps	p. 220
Displacement or volumetric pumps	p. 222
Motors	p. 226
Introduction	p. 226
DC motors	p. 228
AC motors	p. 231
Motor losses	p. 232
Integrated pump/motor machines	p. 232
Power conditioning circuitry	p. 232
Batteries	p. 236
Array wiring and mounting	p. 238
Array wiring	p. 238
Array mounting	p. 238
PV Water Pumping System Design	p. 243
Introduction	p. 243
Basic steps in system design	p. 244
Design of a directly-coupled system	p. 245
Standard AM0 and AM1.5 Spectra	p. 249
Equations for Calculating Sun Position	p. 255
Characteristic Days and Declinations	p. 257
Some Insolation Data Sources	p. 259
Ground-based measurements	p. 259
Satellite-derived data	p. 260
Australia and New Zealand	p. 260
Europe	p. 261
Hong Kong	p. 261
USA	p. 261
Algeria	p. 262
Brazil	p. 262
Regression constants	p. 262
Theoretical models and calculators	p. 263
Global Gazetteer	p. 263
Standards	p. 265
ASTM international	p. 265
Australia-Standards Australia	p. 267
Canada-Standards Council of Canada	p. 268
China-Standardization administration of china (SAC)	p. 268
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC)	p. 270
Germany-Deutsches Institut fur Normung (DIN)	p. 272
Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics (PVGAP)	p. 274
Indonesia-Badan Standardisasi Nasional (BSN)	p. 274
Institution of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)	p. 275
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)	p. 276
INternational Organization for Standards (ISO)	p. 277
Japan-Japanese Standards Association (JSA)	p. 278
Korea-Korean Standards Association (KSA)	p. 279
Mexico-Direccion General de Normas (DGN)	p. 281
Russia-Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology	p. 281
Sweden-Standardiseringen i Sverige (SIS)	p. 282
Taiwan (ROC)-Bureau of Standards, Metrology and Inspection (BSMI)	p. 282
Thailand-thai industrial standards institute (TISI)	p. 282
TUV Rheinland	p. 282
Underwriters Laboratories (UL)	p. 283
Zimbabwe-Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ)	p. 283
Universal Technical Standard for Solar Home Systems	p. 283
Best Practice Guidelines and Accreditation	p. 283
International Solar Energy Society (ISES) and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Sonnenenergie eV (DGS)	p. 284
Alternative Sources of Power for Water Pumping	p. 287
Introduction	p. 287
Human labour using hand pumps	p. 287
Draught animals	p. 288
Petrol- or diesel-fueLled small engines	p. 288
Centralised rural electrification	p. 288
Wind pumps	p. 289
Water wheels, turbines, ram pumps and current turbines	p. 289
Steam engines	p. 289
Biogas-fuelled small engines	p. 289
Solar radiation, used via photovoltaics	p. 290
Stand-Alone Photovoltaic System Design	p. 291
Introduction	p. 291
Stand-alone system design procedure	p. 291
Sandia National Laboratory approach	p. 293
System Design for PV-Powered Water Pumping	p. 301
Introduction	p. 301
Insolation data manipulation	p. 301
PV module characteristics	p. 304
Example of a directly-coupled system design	p. 509
Index	p. 317
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