Approaches to Social Research

by Singleton, Royce A.; Straits, Bruce C.

• ISBN13: 9780195105254
• ISBN10: 0195105257
• Edition: 3rd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 1998-09-24
• Publisher: Oxford University Press

Summary

Thoroughly revised and updated, the third edition of this successful text offers a wealth of new research examples and references, accessible diagrams of essential concepts and processes, and extended coverage of core methods and recent developments. Ideal for introductory methods courses, as well as for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses, Approaches to Social Research strikes an important balance between specific techniques and the underlying logic of social inquiry -- the how-to and wherefore of research. Opening chapters draw students into the subject by illustrating the practicality of the study of research methods, outlining the scientific and logical foundations of social research. The text then follows a typical research project beginning with research design, measurement, and sampling, proceeding with data collection, and ending with data processing and analysis. The authors provide a balanced treatment of the four major approaches to research -- experimentation, survey research, field research, and the use of available data -- bringing the material to life with numerous examples drawn from both classic and current research. While advocating a multiple-methods strategy that treats the approaches as complementary rather than as mutually exclusive, it furnishes a detailed account of the process as well as the advantages and disadvantages of carrying out research with each approach. Extensive substantive examples and a clear exposition make complex issues accessible to students with no background in social research.

Author Biography

Bruce C. Straits, Department of Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara. Royce A. Singleton, Jr., Department of Sociology and Anthropology, College of the Holy Cross.

Table of Contents

Preface	xv
Chapter 1 Introduction	1	(14)
Why Study Research Methods?	2	(3)
Consuming Research Evidence
Producing Research Evidence
Methodological Approaches to the Social World	5	(6)
Some Preliminary Research Questions
An Experimental Answer
An Answer from Survey Research
An Answer from Field Research
An Answer from Available Data
Conclusions	11	(4)
An Overview of the Book
I SCIENTIFIC AND LOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH	15	(48)
Chapter 2 The Nature of Science	17	(23)
The Aim of Science	17	(1)
Science as Product	18	(9)
Scientific versus Nonscientific Questions
Knowledge as Description
Knowledge as Explanation and Prediction
Knowledge as Understanding
Tentative Knowledge
Science as Process	27	(7)
Empiricism
Objectivity
Control
Science: Ideal versus Reality	34	(3)
Summary	37	(3)
Chapter 3 The Logic of Scientific Reasoning	40	(23)
Logic and Reasoning	40	(1)
Elements of Logical Analysis	41	(2)
Terms
Propositions
Arguments
Validity and Truth: Logic and Science	43	(1)
Deduction and Induction	44	(1)
Deductive Reasoning in Science	45	(5)
Argument Forms
The Deductive Pattern of Scientific Explanation
Inductive Reasoning in Science	50	(9)
Inductive Generalization
Testing Hypotheses: The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
Summary	59	(4)
II RESEARCH DESIGN	63	(114)
Chapter 4 Elements of Research Design	65	(34)
Selecting Topics for Research	65	(2)
Units of Analysis	67	(3)
Variables	70	(3)
Types of Variables
Relationships	73	(12)
Relationships among Qualitative Variables
Relationships among Quantitative Variables
Relationships between a Qualitative and a Quantitative Variable
The Nature of Causal Relationships
Stating Problems and Hypotheses	85	(4)
Research Purposes and Research Design	89	(3)
Stages of Social Research	92	(2)
Stage 1: Formulation of the Research Problem
Stage 2: Preparation of the Research Design
Stage 3: Measurement
Stage 4: Sampling
Stage 5: Data Collection
Stage 6: Data Processing
Stage 7: Data Analysis and Interpretation
Summary	94	(5)
Chapter 5 Measurement	99	(35)
The Measurement Process	99	(3)
Conceptualization
Operationalization
Operational Definitions in Social Research	102	(7)
Verbal Reports
Observation
Archival Records
Selection of Operational Definitions
Levels of Measurement	109	(4)
Nominal Measurement
Ordinal Measurement
Interval Measurement
Ratio Measurement
Discussion
Reliability and Validity	113	(4)
Sources of Error
Reliability Assessment	117	(3)
Test-Retest Reliability
Split-half and Internal Consistency Reliability
Intercoder Reliability
Improving Reliability
Validity Assessment	120	(8)
Subjective Validation
Criterion-related Validation
Construct Validation
A Final Note on Reliability and Validity	128	(1)
Summary	128	(6)
Chapter 6 Sampling	134	(43)
Why Sample?	135	(1)
Population Definition	136	(5)
Sampling Designs	141	(1)
Probability Sampling	142	(15)
Random Selection
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling	157	(3)
Convenience Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Quota Sampling
Other Sampling Designs	160	(3)
Combined Probability and Nonprobability Sampling
Referral Sampling
Factors Affecting Choice of Sampling Design	163	(2)
Stage of Research and Data Use
Available Resources
Method of Data Collection
Factors Determining Sample Size	165	(4)
Population Heterogeneity
Desired Precision
Sampling Design
Available Resources
Number of Breakdowns Planned
Final Notes on Sampling Errors and Generalizability	169	(1)
Summary	170	(7)
III METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION	177	(276)
Chapter 7 Experimentation	179	(31)
The Logic of Experimentation	179	(6)
Testing Causal Relations
Matching and Random Assignment
Internal and External Validity
Sampling in Experiments
Staging Experiments	185	(9)
An Example: Who Will Intervene?
Subject Recruitment and Acquisition of Informed Consent
Introduction to the Experiment
The Experimental Manipulation
Manipulation Checks
Measurement of the Dependent Variable
Debriefing
Pretesting
Experimental and Mundane Realism
The Experiment as a Social Occasion	194	(7)
Demand Characteristics
Evaluation Apprehension
Other Motives of Experimental Subjects
Experimenter Effects
Minimizing Bias Due to the Social Nature of Experimentation
Experimentation Outside the Laboratory	201	(5)
Field Experiments
Experimental Designs in Survey Research
Units of Analysis Other than Individuals
Summary	206	(4)
Chapter 8 Experimental Designs	210	(29)
Threats to Internal Validity	210	(5)
Pre-experimental Designs	215	(2)
Design 1: The One-Shot Case Study
Design 2: The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
Design 3: The Static-Group Comparison
True Experimental Designs	217	(4)
Design 4: The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
Design 5: The Posttest-Only Control Group Design
Design 6: The Solomon Four-Group Design
Overview of True Experimental Designs
Factorial Experimental Designs	221	(5)
Interaction Effects
Quasi-experimental Designs	226	(8)
Example 1: Interracial Attitudes and Behavior at a Summer Camp
Example 2: The Connecticut Crackdown on Speeding
Summary	234	(5)
Chapter 9 Survey Research	239	(39)
General Features of Survey Research	239	(6)
Large-Scale Probability Sampling
Systematic Procedures: Interviews and Questionnaires
Quantitative Data Analysis
Secondary Analysis of Surveys
The Uses and Limitations of Surveys	245	(2)
Survey Research Designs	247	(4)
Cross-sectional Designs
Longitudinal Designs
Steps in Survey Research: Planning	251	(3)
Constructing the Instrument
Developing the Sampling Plan
Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviewing	254	(4)
Face-to-Face Interviewing
Telephone Interviewing
Self-Administered Questionnaires	258	(2)
Mixed Mode Surveys	260	(1)
A Final Note on Planning	261	(1)
Field Administration	262	(11)
Interviewer Selection
Interviewer Training
Pretesting
Gaining Access
Interviewing
Supervision and Quality Control
Follow-up Efforts
Summary	273	(5)
Chapter 10 Survey Instrumentation	278	(42)
The Survey as a Social Occasion	279	(1)
Materials Available to the Survey Designer	280	(12)
Open-ended and Closed-ended Questions
Direct and Indirect Questions
Response Formats
Visual Aids
Existing Questions
"Sketches" or Preliminaries	292	(4)
The Opening
The Placement of Sensitive and Routine Questions
Order, Flow, and Transition
Filling in the Sketch: Writing the Items	296	(14)
Using Language Effectively
The "Frame of Reference" Problem
Reason Analysis
Memory Problems
Response Bias Problems
Format Considerations
Pretesting	310	(4)
Cognitive Laboratory Interviews
Field Pretesting
Summary	314	(6)
Chapter 11 Field Research	320	(37)
The Potentials and Limitations of Field Research	322	(2)
Field Observation	324	(7)
Nonparticipant Observation
Participant Observation
Research Design and Sampling	331	(2)
Sampling in Field Research
Stages of Field Research	333	(20)
A Field Study of the Homeless
Selecting a Research Setting
Gaining Access
Presenting Oneself
Gathering Information
Analyzing the Data
Summary	353	(4)
Chapter 12 Research Using Available Data	357	(36)
Sources of Available Data	357	(9)
Public Documents and Official Records
Private Documents
Mass Media
Physical, Nonverbal Evidence
Social Science Data Archives
Advantages of Research Using Available Data	366	(3)
Nonreactive Measurement
Analyzing Social Structure
Studying and Understanding the Past
Understanding Social Change
Studying Problems Cross-culturally
Improving Knowledge through Replication and Increased Sample Size
Savings on Research Costs
General Methodological Issues in Available-Data Research	369	(7)
Searching for and Procuring Available Data
Measurement of Key Concepts
Evaluation of Data Quality
Assessment of Data Completeness
Historical Analysis	376	(7)
Descriptive and Analytical History
Handling Documentary Evidence
Historical Interpretation
Content Analysis	383	(6)
Selecting and Defining Content Categories
Defining the Unit of Analysis
Deciding on a System of Enumeration
Carrying Out the Analysis
Summary	389	(4)
Chapter 13 Multiple Methods	393	(28)
Triangulation	393	(3)
Multiple Measures of Concepts within the Same Study	396	(8)
Composite Measures: Indexes and Scales
Structural Equation Modeling
Multiple Tests of Hypotheses Across Different Studies	404	(5)
Replications Using the Same Research Strategy: Compliance without Pressure
Replications Using Different Research Strategies: Deterrent Effects of Arrest
A Comparison of the Four Basic Approaches to Social Research	409	(4)
Meta-Analysis	413	(4)
Problem Formulation
Data Collection
Data Evaluation
Analysis and Interpretation
Public Presentation
Summary	417	(4)
Chapter 14 Evaluation Research	421	(32)
Framework and Sample Studies	421	(6)
Example 1: Feeding the Homeless
Example 2: Aid to Released Prisoners
Example 3: Curbing Drunk Driving
Types of Evaluation Research	427	(8)
Problem Identification: Conceptualization and Diagnosis
Policy Planning: Needs and Social Impact Assessments
Program Development: Formative Evaluation
Program Implementation: Program Monitoring
Program Evaluation: Effect and Efficiency Assessment
Methodological Issues in Evaluation Research	435	(12)
Theory as a Guide to Research
Research Design and Internal Validity
Measurement Validity
External Validity
The Social and Political Context of Evaluation Research	447	(2)
Summary	449	(4)
IV DATA PROCESSING, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION	453	(100)
Chapter 15 Data Processing and Elementary Data Analysis	455	(35)
Beginning the Analysis	456	(1)
Data Processing	456	(9)
Coding
Editing
Entering the Data
Cleaning
Modifying the Data
The Functions of Statistics in Social Research	465	(1)
Univariate Analysis	466	(5)
Bivariate Analysis	471	(14)
Relationships Involving Nominal-Scale Variables
Relationships between Two Ordinal-Scale Variables
Relationships between a Nominal-/Ordinal-and an Interval-/Ratio-Scale Variable
Relationships between Two Interval-/Ratio-Scale Variables
Summary	485	(5)
Chapter 16 Multivariate Analysis	490	(23)
Modeling Relationships	491	(4)
Arrow Diagrams
Stochastic and Systematic Components
The Process of Modeling
Elaboration	495	(2)
Multiple-Regression Analysis	497	(10)
A Three-Variable Example
Use of Dummy Variables
Other Modeling Techniques	507	(2)
Summary	509	(4)
Chapter 17 Research Ethics	513	(24)
Treatment of Human Subjects	514	(12)
Harm
Informed Consent
Deception
Privacy
Making Ethical Decisions
The Uses of Research: Science and Society	526	(7)
Summary	533	(4)
Chapter 18 Writing Research Reports	537	(16)
Using the Library for Research	537	(7)
Indexes and Abstracts
The Internet
Outlining and Preparing to Write	544	(2)
Major Headings	546	(3)
The Abstract
Introduction
Literature Review
Methods
Findings
Discussion
References
Other Considerations	549	(2)
The Writing-Reading Interface
Revisions
Length
Summary	551	(2)
Glossary	553	(18)
References	571	(26)
Name Index	597	(8)
Subject Index	605