Arboriculture : Integrated Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs, and Vines

by Harris, Richard W., Professor Emeritus; Clark, James R.; Matheny, Nelda P.

• ISBN13: 9780130888822
• ISBN10: 0130888826
• Edition: 4th
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2003-01-16
• Publisher: Prentice Hall

Summary

Regarded by many as an irreplaceable reference tool, this book describes the integration of the landscape environment (climate, soil, and related organisms), its effect on landscape plants, and how to manage both to obtain the desired results with reasonable effort.All aspects of tree, shrub, and vine care are covered, including plant structure and function, plant selection, site analysis and preparation, environmental influences on growth, soil, water and nutrient management, pruning, transplanting, and plant health care.A valuable handbook for professionals, including arboricultural consultants, arborists, urban foresters, landscape architects, landscape contractors (installation and/or maintenance), state and county horticultural extension advisors, park directors and staff (federal, state, regional, and local), street tree superintendents and staff, grounds superintendents and staff (golf courses, college and school grounds, cemeteries, condominiums, retirement communities, theme parks, etc.), arboretum and botanic garden directors and staff, nursery growers and retailers.

Table of Contents

Preface	xi
Introduction to Arboriculture	1	(12)
Arboriculture	1	(1)
Arboriculture in Practice	2	(4)
Regulation of Tree Care Activities	4	(2)
Relationship of Arboriculture to Urban Forests and Urban Forestry	6	(2)
Urban Forestry	6	(1)
Arboriculture and Sustainable Urban Forests	7	(1)
The Guiding Principles of Arboriculture	8	(4)
Review	12	(1)
Further Reading	12	(1)
Plant Structure and Function	13	(39)
Mechanical Design of Trees	14	(1)
Crown Development	15	(4)
Shoots	15	(1)
Buds	15	(1)
Shoot Elongation	16	(2)
Patterns of Shoot Elongation	18	(1)
The Leaf	19	(1)
The Crown	20	(3)
Form: Excurrent, Decurrent, and Apical Control	20	(3)
The Root	23	(6)
Roots and Soil Organisms	24	(2)
Root Development	26	(1)
Size of Root Systems	27	(1)
Roots and Underground Pipes	28	(1)
Girdling Roots	28	(1)
The Trunk	29	(7)
Xylem	30	(1)
Phloem and Bark	31	(1)
Trunk Taper	31	(3)
Compartmentalization	34	(1)
Wood Decay	35	(1)
Branch Attachment	36	(2)
Palms	38	(2)
Reproductive Development	40	(2)
Angiosperm Flowers	40	(1)
Gymnosperm Flowers	41	(1)
Tree Death	42	(1)
How Trees Die	42	(1)
Overview of Basic Physiological Processes	43	(1)
Photosynthesis	43	(1)
Respiration	43	(1)
Transpiration	44	(1)
Control Mechanisms of Growth and Development	44	(5)
Genetic Controls	44	(1)
Environmental Controls	45	(1)
Time	46	(2)
Plant Growth Regulators	48	(1)
Integration of Growth over Time	49	(2)
Root--Shoot Ratio	50	(1)
Review	51	(1)
Further Reading	51	(1)
Site Evaluation: Climate and Environment	52	(22)
Plant Climates: Temperature	53	(11)
Cold Temperatures	55	(2)
Lowest Temperature Expectable	57	(1)
Spring and Fall Cold	58	(2)
Protecting against Frosts	60	(2)
Winter Chilling and Rest	62	(2)
High Temperatures	64	(1)
Light: Radiation	64	(3)
Photosynthesis	65	(1)
Phototropism	65	(1)
Photoperiodism	65	(1)
Night Lighting	66	(1)
Transpiration	67	(1)
Moisture	67	(2)
Rain	67	(1)
Fog	67	(1)
Dew	68	(1)
Drought	68	(1)
Excess Moisture	68	(1)
Hail	69	(1)
Snow and Glaze Ice	69	(1)
Wind	69	(2)
Plant Damage	70	(1)
Transpiration	70	(1)
Photosynthesis	71	(1)
Windchill Factor	71	(1)
Urban Climate	71	(1)
Review	72	(1)
Further Reading	73	(1)
Planting Site: Soil and Water	74	(28)
Evaluation of Soils	75	(21)
Soil Formation	75	(2)
Soil Physical Characteristics	77	(3)
Chemical Properties of Soils	80	(3)
Biological Properties of Soil	83	(2)
Soil Organic Matter	85	(2)
Soil Quality and Health	87	(1)
Urban Soils	88	(3)
Evaluating Site Soils	91	(5)
Water Quality	96	(4)
Evaluating Water Quality	97	(2)
Selection of Sites Suitable for Irrigation with Recycled Water	99	(1)
Review	100	(1)
Further Reading	101	(1)
Benefits of Trees	102	(16)
Air Quality	103	(2)
Primary Atmospheric Contaminants	103	(1)
Pollutants from Trees---Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds	103	(1)
Air Purification by Trees	103	(1)
Carbon Uptake and Storage	104	(1)
Air Temperature, Wind, and Energy Savings	105	(5)
Trees and Wind	105	(1)
Energy Conservation---Direct Benefits	106	(2)
Energy Conservation---Indirect Benefits	108	(1)
Energy Conservation---Deferred Costs of Energy Production	109	(1)
Energy Conservation through Strategic Tree Planting	109	(1)
Storm Water Runoff and Erosion Control	110	(1)
Noise Reduction	111	(1)
Psychological and Social Benefits of Trees	111	(2)
The Restorative Power of Nature	111	(1)
Urban Forests and Human Behavior	112	(1)
Summary of Psychological and Social Benefits of Trees	113	(1)
Economic Values	113	(2)
Appraisal of the Value of Landscape Trees	114	(1)
Other Approaches to Value	114	(1)
The True and Full Accounting of the Urban Forest---Cost-Benefit Analysis	115	(1)
Review	116	(1)
Further Reading	116	(2)
A Final Note	118	(1)
Plant Selection	118	(19)
Selecting the Right Plant	118	(6)
Inherent Characteristics	119	(1)
Growth Habit and Size	119	(3)
Plant Features	122	(1)
Native Plants	123	(1)
Plant Selection Programs	124	(1)
Sources and Size of Planting Stock	124	(1)
Performance Following Planting	125	(1)
Selecting Quality Plants	126	(9)
Root Characteristics	126	(4)
The Future	130	(1)
Top and Trunk Characteristics	130	(1)
Top-to-Root Relationships	130	(3)
Health	133	(1)
Inspecting Plants	133	(1)
Additional Thoughts	134	(1)
Review	135	(1)
Further Reading	136	(1)
Modifying and Managing the Site	137	(45)
Modifying Soil Physical Properties	137	(15)
Modifying Soil Texture and Improving Structure	138	(8)
Improving Surface Drainage	146	(1)
Improving Internal Drainage	147	(4)
Improving Soil Moisture Conditions	151	(1)
Modifying Soil Chemical Properties	152	(6)
Adjusting Soil Reaction	152	(1)
Reclaiming Saline Soils	153	(4)
Reclaiming Sodic and Saline-Sodic Soils	157	(1)
Enhancing and Maintaining Soil Organic Matter	158	(17)
Organic Soil Amendments	159	(3)
Mulches	162	(13)
Improving the Biological Activity of Soil	175	(5)
Improving Symbiotic Associations	175	(3)
Applying Mycorrhizal Fungi to the Landscape	178	(2)
Review	180	(1)
Further Reading	181	(1)
Planting	182	(26)
Seeds, Liner Plants, and Cuttings	182	(2)
Planting Seed	182	(1)
Planting Liner Plants	183	(1)
Sticking Cuttings	184	(1)
Young Plants	184	(17)
Season to Plant	184	(1)
Handling Plants before Planting	185	(1)
Preparing the Planting Hole	185	(1)
Pruning Roots	186	(2)
Setting the Plant	188	(1)
Backfilling	189	(1)
Treatments That May Enhance Rooting	189	(1)
Wire Baskets	190	(1)
Pruning	191	(1)
Staking	192	(6)
Alternatives to Support Staking	198	(1)
Treeshelters	199	(2)
Care Following Planting	201	(5)
Water	201	(1)
Turf	202	(2)
Bedding and Ground-Cover Plants	204	(1)
Weed Management	204	(1)
Cultivation	205	(1)
Effects of Bare Soil around Plants	206	(1)
Review	206	(1)
Further Reading	207	(1)
Transplanting Large Plants	208	(14)
Selection of Plants	208	(1)
Species	208	(1)
Size and Quality	209	(1)
Site Characteristics	209	(1)
Season of Transplanting	209	(1)
Methods of Transplanting	210	(6)
Bare Root	210	(1)
Ball-in-Burlap	210	(2)
Frozen Root Ball	212	(1)
Bare Root Ball	213	(1)
Box	213	(2)
Mechanical Tree Movers	215	(1)
Planting	216	(2)
Protecting the Trunk	217	(1)
Watering and Mulching	217	(1)
Pruning	218	(1)
Transplanting Palms	218	(2)
Preparing to Move	218	(2)
Planting	220	(1)
Postplanting Care	220	(1)
Evaluating Success	220	(1)
Review	221	(1)
Further Reading	221	(1)
Special Management Situations	222	(34)
Trees in Pavement	222	(5)
Providing an Environment Adequate for Tree Growth	222	(5)
Root--Pavement Conflicts	227	(7)
Preventing Root--Pavement Conflicts	228	(4)
Remedial Treatment for Existing Root--Pavement Conflicts	232	(2)
Roots and Pavement---The Future?	234	(1)
Tree Roots in Sewers	234	(3)
Sewer Design and Construction	234	(1)
Tree Planting Practices---Species Selection and Placement	234	(2)
Mechanical Treatment to Control Roots in Sewers	236	(1)
Chemical Treatment to Control Roots in Sewers	236	(1)
Remedial Treatments to Sewer Line	237	(1)
Recycling Wood Waste	237	(4)
Material Generated	237	(1)
Recycling of Wood Waste	237	(1)
Composting	238	(1)
Recycling Tree Trunks	239	(2)
The Future	241	(1)
Managing Fire-Safe Landscapes	241	(4)
Basic Elements of Fire Behavior	242	(1)
Managing Fire Fuels	242	(1)
Evaluating Fire-Damaged Plants	242	(2)
Community Education and Awareness	244	(1)
Managing Forest Remnants	245	(3)
Function of Forest Remnants	246	(1)
Guiding Principles	246	(1)
Management Goals	246	(2)
Summary of Managing Forest Remnants	248	(1)
Roots and Buildings	248	(4)
The Role of Trees in Structural Damage	248	(1)
Diagnosing Tree Contribution to Structural Damage	249	(1)
Soil Expansion	250	(1)
Correcting and Avoiding Problem Situations	251	(1)
Other Special Management Situations	252	(3)
Planters without Natural Drainage	252	(1)
Areas That Are Periodically Flooded	253	(1)
Landfill Sites	254	(1)
Coastal Locations	254	(1)
Review	255	(1)
Further Reading	255	(1)
Preserving Existing Trees	256	(24)
Why Trees Are Preserved	256	(1)
Goals of Tree Preservation	256	(1)
An Overview of the Land Development Process	257	(1)
The Tree Preservation Process	258	(7)
Conducting a Tree Survey	258	(1)
Suitability for Preservation	258	(2)
Identifying a Tree Protection Zone	260	(1)
Locating Trees on Plans	261	(2)
Assessing Construction Impacts to Trees	263	(2)
Designs to Minimize Impacts to Trees	265	(11)
Grading Considerations	266	(5)
Footing and Foundation Design	271	(1)
Structure Design	272	(1)
Utilities and Services	272	(2)
Installing Pavement	274	(2)
Construction Specifications	276	(1)
Preconstruction Treatments	276	(2)
Arboricultural Treatments to Improve Health	276	(1)
Provide Clearance for Construction Activities	277	(1)
Protect Tree from Damage	277	(1)
Clear Unwanted Vegetation	278	(1)
Tree Protection During Construction	278	(1)
Review	278	(1)
Further Reading	279	(1)
Nutrient Management	280	(29)
Relationships among Soil, Nutrients, and Plants	280	(1)
Physical Properties of Soil	280	(1)
Chemical Properties of Soil	280	(1)
Organic and Inorganic Sources of Nutrients	281	(1)
Essential Plant Nutrients	282	(17)
Macronutrients	282	(7)
Micronutrients	289	(10)
Fertilizing and Fertilizers	299	(1)
Complete Fertilizers	299	(1)
Plant Adaptation to Low Nutrient Levels	299	(1)
Nitrogen and Phosphorus and Root and Shoot Growth	300	(3)
Determining Nutrient Needs and Toxicity Problems	301	(2)
Fertilizer Application Methods	303	(2)
Time of Application	305	(1)
Fertilizing Young Plants	306	(1)
Fertilizing Root-Damaged Mature Trees	307	(1)
Fertilizing Palms	307	(1)
Potential Fertilizer Pollution	307	(1)
Review	308	(1)
Further Reading	308	(1)
Water Management	309	(26)
Soil Water	309	(4)
Movement of Water	312	(1)
Water Use by Plants	313	(2)
Atmospheric Demand	313	(1)
Plant Restriction of Water Loss	313	(2)
Soil Moisture Reservoir	315	(1)
Plant Adaptations to Natural Water Supply	315	(4)
Drought	317	(2)
Supplying Additional Water Through Irrigation	319	(4)
Determining When and How Much to Irrigate	319	(1)
Applying Water	320	(2)
Managing Water for Young Trees	322	(1)
Establishing a Water Management Program	323	(5)
Adjustments to Reference Evapotranspiration (Eto)	324	(2)
Putting It All Together to Start a Management Program	326	(1)
Additional Comments	327	(1)
Landscape Water Conservation	328	(3)
Managing Landscapes during a Drought	330	(1)
Irrigating with Recycled Water	330	(1)
Antitranspirants	331	(1)
Review	332	(2)
Further Reading	334	(1)
Pruning	335	(57)
General Principles of Pruning	335	(13)
Purposes of Pruning	335	(1)
Reasons for Pruning	335	(1)
Pruning Responses	336	(4)
Pruning Techniques	340	(4)
Making the Pruning Cut	344	(3)
Protecting Pruning Cuts	347	(1)
Pruning Trees	348	(21)
Structural Strength	348	(2)
Long and Short Pruning	350	(1)
Long Pruning: Natural	351	(1)
Training Young Trees	351	(3)
Pruning at Planting	354	(1)
Training in the Landscape	354	(6)
Pruning Mature Trees	360	(9)
Short Pruning	369	(6)
Screen (Curtain) Pruning	369	(1)
Pollard	370	(3)
Topiary	373	(1)
Pleach	374	(1)
Bonsai	374	(1)
Coniferous Trees	375	(5)
Whorl-Branching Species	378	(1)
Random-Branching Species	379	(1)
Pruning Severity	379	(1)
Columnar Conifers	379	(1)
Nursery-Grown Trees	380	(1)
Young Conifers in the Landscape	380	(1)
Palm Trees	380	(3)
Shrubs	383	(4)
General Shrub Pruning Considerations	383	(1)
Pruning Deciduous Shrubs	383	(1)
Pruning Evergreen Shrubs	384	(1)
Shrubs into Small Trees	385	(1)
Hedges	385	(2)
Roses (Rosa)	387	(1)
Vines	387	(3)
Review	390	(1)
Further Reading	391	(1)
Control of Plant Growth	392	(13)
Stimulation of Growth	392	(1)
Chemical Control of Plant Height	392	(8)
Growth Control Mechanisms	392	(8)
Chemical Control of Trunk Sprouts	400	(1)
Killing Woody Plants	401	(2)
Chemical Control of Flowering, Fruit Set, and Mistletoes	403	(1)
Review	404	(1)
Tree Hazard Management	405	(29)
Components of Hazard Evaluations	405	(4)
Inspection Period	408	(1)
Factors Influencing Tree Failure	409	(3)
Species	409	(2)
Size and Age	411	(1)
Site	411	(1)
Maintenance Practices	412	(1)
Defects	412	(1)
Evaluating Defects	412	(6)
Visual Tree Assessment	412	(1)
Tree Structure	413	(2)
Increased Exposure	415	(1)
Leaning Trees	415	(1)
Frost Cracks and Lightning Scars	415	(1)
Dead Trees and Branches	415	(1)
Root Defects	415	(1)
Cankers	416	(1)
Decay	417	(1)
Evaluating the Potential for Failure Caused by Decay	418	(8)
Direct Methods of Decay Detection	418	(7)
Selecting Sampling Locations	425	(1)
Evaluating Strength Loss from Decay	425	(1)
Evaluating the Potential for Windthrow	426	(2)
Evaluating the Potential for Summer Branch Drop	428	(1)
Evaluating Targets	429	(1)
Tree Hazard Management	429	(1)
Hazard Rating Systems	430	(1)
Hazard Abatement	430	(2)
Review	432	(1)
Further Reading	432	(2)
Preventive Maintenance and Repair	434	(22)
Tree Support Systems	434	(15)
A Note of Caution on Use of Support Systems	435	(2)
Cabling	437	(5)
Bracing	442	(2)
Sling Systems	444	(1)
Guying	444	(2)
Propping	446	(1)
Lightning Protection	447	(2)
Care of Wounds and Cavities	449	(5)
Injection Wounds	451	(1)
Caring for Trees with Wounds	452	(2)
Cavities	454	(1)
Treating Cavities	454	(1)
Review	455	(1)
Further Reading	455	(1)
Diagnosing Plant Problems	456	(45)
The Diagnosis	456	(1)
Evaluating Symptoms and Signs	456	(9)
Distinguishing What Is Normal and Abnormal	459	(3)
A Diagnostic Approach	462	(1)
Diagnostic Tools	463	(2)
Collecting Samples	465	(1)
Identifying Common Plant Problems	465	(1)
Abiotic Agents	466	(10)
Mechanical Injury	466	(1)
Chemical Injury	467	(3)
Thermal Injury	470	(1)
Lightning	470	(1)
Nutrient Deficiency	471	(1)
Problems Related to Soil and Roots	472	(2)
Air Quality	474	(2)
Biotic Agents	476	(10)
Leaf Diseases	478	(1)
Cankers	478	(1)
Causal Agents	479	(7)
Sources of Help	486	(1)
Review	487	(1)
Further Reading	488	(13)
Plant Health Care: The Integrated Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs, and Vines	501	(24)
Integrated Pest Management	502	(2)
Integrated Pest Management and its Application to Arboriculture	504	(2)
Key Pest---Key Plant---Key Stress	504	(1)
Action Thresholds	504	(1)
Monitoring	505	(1)
Control Options	506	(5)
Regulatory Control	506	(1)
Genetic Control	506	(1)
Biological Control	506	(1)
Cultural Control	507	(1)
Chemical Control	508	(3)
Plant Health Care in Practice	511	(7)
The Integrated Management of Oak Wilt	511	(3)
The Integrated Management of Vegetation along Transmission Rights-of-Way	514	(2)
The Management of Mature Trees	516	(2)
Review	518	(1)
Further Reading	518	(1)
Appendices
I. Specifications for Acceptance of Landscape Nursery Trees	519	(2)
II. Pruning Specifications	521	(2)
III. Measurement Conversions	523	(2)
Glossary	525	(10)
Bibliography	535	(28)
Index	563

Excerpts

Twenty years have past since the publication of the first edition. During that time arboriculture has experienced significant changes. Research findings; the application, training, and certification of arborists; innovations by practitioners; new and improved equipment and products; a worldwide community of professionals; and a better informed and more concerned public bode well for the future of arboriculture. Instant access to information across the Internet allows for exchange of ideas and experiences among arborists in every part of the globe.The fourth edition ofArboricultureprovides approaches to analyzing problems and situations and selecting the most appropriate solutions or courses of action. This is particularly important because local or regional factors require specific solutions. As in previous editions, new information and maintenance practices are evaluated and, where appropriate, current practices reassessed. The analytical approach is emphasized, assessing management needs and deciding on an appropriate solution.The common and botanical names used generally conform to those listed inHortus Third(Bailey and others, 1976) and theAnnotated Checklist of Woody Ornamental Plants of California, Oregon,andWashington(McClintock and Leiser, 1979).Measurements are given in metric units, followed by English equivalents in parentheses. In many situations, approximate values are accurate enough, so conversions between the two systems are rounded for simplicity.