Argumentation Schemes

by Douglas Walton , Christopher Reed , Fabrizio Macagno

• ISBN13: 9780521723749
• ISBN10: 0521723744
• Edition: 1st
• Format: Paperback
• Copyright: 2008-08-04
• Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Summary

This book provides a systematic analysis of many common argumentation schemes and a compendium of 96 schemes. The study of these schemes, or forms of argument that capture stereotypical patterns of human reasoning, is at the core of argumentation research. Surveying all aspects of argumentation schemes from the ground up, the book takes the reader from the elementary exposition in the first chapter to the latest state of the art in the research efforts to formalize and classify the schemes, outlined in the last chapter. It provides a systematic and comprehensive account, with notation suitable for computational applications that increasingly make use of argumentation schemes.

Author Biography

Douglas Walton is Distinguished Research Fellow of CRRAR (Centre for Research in Reasoning, Argumentation and Rhetoric), University of Windsor, and Assumption University Chair in Argumentation Studies (University of Windsor) Chris Reed is senior lecturer and head of research at the School of Computing, University of Dundee. He is the head of the Argumentation Research Group at Dundee, which has been instrumental in the development of the Argument Interchange Format, an international standard for computational work in the area Fabrizio Macagno received his doctorate in linguistics from the Catholic University of Milan. He is coauthor with Douglas Walton of several papers published in international journals

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments	p. xi
Introduction	p. 1
Basic Tools in the State of the Art	p. 7
Introducing Argumentation Schemes	p. 8
Argument from Position to Know and Expert Opinion	p. 13
Critical Questions	p. 15
Enthymemes, Schemes, and Critical Questions	p. 18
Argument Diagramming Tools	p. 21
Introducing Araucaria	p. 24
Problems to be Solved	p. 30
How Are Schemes Binding?	p. 34
Directions for AI	p. 38
Where We Go from Here	p. 40
Schemes for Argument from Analogy, Classification, and Precedent	p. 43
The Case of the Drug-Sniffing Dog	p. 45
Argument from Analogy as Treated in Logic Textbooks	p. 48
Is Argument from Analogy Deductive or Inductive?	p. 53
The Schemes for Argument from Analogy	p. 55
Argument from Analogy as a Defeasible Form of Argument	p. 60
Arguments from Classification	p. 66
Arguments Based on Rules and Classifications	p. 70
Argument from Precedent and Practical Argument from Analogy	p. 72
The Case of the Drug-Sniffing Dog Again	p. 75
Conclusions	p. 80
Knowledge-Related, Practical, and Other Schemes	p. 87
Arguments from Knowledge	p. 87
Practical Reasoning	p. 94
Lack-of-Knowledge Arguments	p. 98
Arguments from Consequences	p. 100
Fear and Danger Appeals	p. 102
Arguments from Alternatives and Opposites	p. 106
Pleas for Help and Excuses	p. 108
Composition and Division Arguments	p. 112
Slippery Slope Arguments	p. 114
Attacking Verbal Classification and Slippery Slope Arguments	p. 117
Arguments from Generally Accepted Opinions, Commitment, and Character	p. 121
Arguments from Popular Opinion	p. 122
Variants of the Basic Form	p. 124
Argument from Commitment	p. 132
Arguments from Inconsistency	p. 136
Ethotic Arguments	p. 140
Circumstantial Ad Hominem	p. 147
Argument from Bias	p. 154
Ad Hominem Strategies to Rebut a Personal Attack	p. 160
Causal Argumentation Schemes	p. 163
The Problem of Causation	p. 164
Argument from Cause to Effect	p. 168
Argument from Effect to Cause	p. 169
Argument from Correlation to Cause	p. 173
Cases in Point	p. 175
Causal Argumentation at Stages of an Investigation	p. 178
Causal Assertions as Defeasible	p. 181
Toward a System of Analysis and Classification	p. 184
Dialectical and Bayesian Models of Causal Argumentation	p. 186
Schemes and Enthymemes	p. 189
Introduction	p. 190
Preliminary Discussion of the Problem	p. 191
A Deductive Case	p. 194
Limitations of Deductive Analysis	p. 196
Use of Argumentation Schemes in Analysis	p. 199
Use of Schemes in Analyzing Weak Arguments	p. 202
Limitations of Schemes	p. 206
Discussion of Cases	p. 210
The Attribution Problem	p. 213
The Dialectical Component of the Enthymeme Machine	p. 216
Attack, Rebuttal, and Refutation	p. 220
Attacking, Questioning, Rebutting, and Refuting	p. 221
Older Theories of Refutation	p. 230
Newer Theories of Refutation	p. 238
Argumentation Schemes and Critical Questions	p. 243
Toward a Pragmatic Theory of Refutation	p. 247
Different Kinds of Opposition	p. 251
Internal and External Refutation	p. 259
A Case Study of Combined Rebuttals	p. 263
The Problem of Argument from Opposites	p. 267
Problems about Critical Questions and Refutations	p. 271
The History of Schemes	p. 275
Aristotle on the Topics	p. 276
Cicero	p. 282
Boethius	p. 284
From Abelard to the Thirteenth Century	p. 289
Fourteenth-Century Logic	p. 294
Topics in the Renaissance and the Port Royal Logic	p. 296
Modern Theories of Schemes	p. 300
Conclusions	p. 304
A User's Compendium of Schemes	p. 308
Argument from Position to Know	p. 309
Argument from Expert Opinion	p. 310
Argument from Witness Testimony	p. 310
Argument from Popular Opinion (and Subtypes)	p. 311
Argument from Popular Practice	p. 314
Argument from Example	p. 314
Argument from Analogy	p. 315
Practical Reasoning from Analogy	p. 316
Argument from Composition	p. 316
Argument from Division	p. 317
Argument from Oppositions	p. 317
Rhetorical Argument from Oppositions	p. 318
Argument from Alternatives	p. 318
Argument from Verbal Classification	p. 319
Argument from Definition to Verbal Classification	p. 319
Argument from Vagueness of a Verbal Classification	p. 320
Argument from Arbitrariness of a Verbal Classification	p. 320
Argument from Interaction of Act and Person	p. 321
Argument from Values	p. 321
Argument from Sacrifice	p. 322
Argument from the Group and Its Members	p. 322
Practical Reasoning	p. 323
Two-Person Practical Reasoning	p. 325
Argument from Waste	p. 326
Argument from Sunk Costs	p. 326
Argument from Ignorance	p. 327
Epistemic Argument from Ignorance	p. 328
Argument from Cause to Effect	p. 328
Argument from Correlation to Cause	p. 328
Argument from Sign	p. 329
Abductive Argumentation Scheme	p. 329
Argument from Evidence to a Hypothesis	p. 331
Argument from Consequences	p. 332
Pragmatiic Argument from Alternatives	p. 333
Argument from Threat	p. 333
Argument from Fear Appeal	p. 333
Argument from Danger Appeal	p. 334
Argument from Need for Help	p. 334
Argument from Distress	p. 334
Argument from Commitment	p. 335
Ethotic Argument	p. 336
Generic Ad Hominem	p. 336
Pragmatic Inconsistency	p. 336
Argument from Inconsistent Commitment	p. 337
Circumstantial Ad Hominem	p. 337
Argument from Bias	p. 338
Bias Ad Hominem	p. 338
Argument from Gradualism	p. 339
Slippery Slope Argument	p. 339
Precedent Slippery Slope Argument	p. 340
Sorites Slippery Slope Argument	p. 340
Verbal Slippery Slope Argument	p. 341
Full Slippery Slope Argument	p. 341
Argument for Constitutive-Rule Claims	p. 342
Argument from Rules	p. 343
Argument for an Exceptional Case	p. 344
Argument from Precedent	p. 344
Argument from Plea for Excuse	p. 345
Argument from Perception	p. 345
Argument from Memory	p. 346
Refining the Classification of Schemes	p. 347
A Proposed General System for Classification of Schemes	p. 348
Classification of Ad Hominem Schemes	p. 351
Classifying the Subtypes of Ad Hominem Arguments	p. 357
Complications	p. 360
Conclusions	p. 362
Formalizing Schemes	p. 364
The Defeasible Modus Ponens Form of Schemes	p. 364
Schemes in AML	p. 367
Elements of a Formalization of Schemes	p. 369
Formalization of Schemes in the Carneades System	p. 371
Formally Modeling the Critical Questions	p. 373
The Argument Interchange Format	p. 375
The Research Project for Developing a Formal System	p. 378
Schemes in Dialogue	p. 382
Summary of the Dialectical System ASD	p. 388
A Worked Example of a Dialogue in ASD	p. 389
Conclusions	p. 392
Schemes in Computer Systems	p. 393
Schemes in Araucaria	p. 393
Schemes in ArguMed	p. 397
Schemes in Compendium	p. 400
Schemes in Rationale	p. 400
Schemes in Natural Language Argumentation	p. 405
Schemes in Interagent Communication	p. 408
Schemes in Automated Reasoning	p. 411
Schemes in Computational Applications	p. 412
Conclusions	p. 414
Bibliography	p. 417
Index	p. 431
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