Assurance Technologies Principles and Practices A Product, Process, and System Safety Perspective

by Raheja, Dev G.; Allocco, Michael

• ISBN13: 9780471744917
• ISBN10: 0471744913
• eBook ISBN(s): 9780470009413
• Edition: 2nd
• Format: Hardcover
• Copyright: 2006-06-12
• Publisher: Wiley-Interscience
• More Book Details
• Purchase Benefits

Summary

The Second Edition features new content, examples,methods, techniques, and best practicesAssurance Technologies Principles and Practices is based on the assertion that safety is not a cost, but an excellent investment. According to the authors, more than sixty percent of problems in complex systems arise from incomplete, vague, and poorly written specifications. In keeping with the authors' passion for safety, the text is dedicated to uniting the gamut of disciplines that are essential for effective design applying assurance technology principles, including system safety, reliability, maintainability, human engineering, quality, logistics, software integrity, and system integration.Readers familiar with the first edition of this text will recognize all the hallmarks that have made it a classic in its field. The Second Edition features a host of new examples, methods, techniques, and best practices to bring the text fully up to date with the state of the art in assurance technology.Much new content has been added as well, including four new chapters: Managing Safety-Related Risks Statistical Concepts, Loss Analysis, and Safety-Related Applications Models, Concepts, and Examples: Applying Scenario-Driven Hazard Analysis Automation, Computer, and Software Complexities The text begins with an introduction and overview of assurance technology. Next, readers are provided with fundamental statistical concepts. The chapters that follow explore in depth the approaches and disciplines that make up assurance technology applications. Each chapter is organized into major phases-design, manufacturing, test, and use phase-that help readers understand both how and when to apply particular measures.Throughout the text, readers discover detailed examples that prepare them to manage real-world challenges. References and further reading are provided at the end of each chapter leading to more in-depth discussion on specialized topics.With its extensive use of examples and highly structured approach, this is an excellent course book for students in industrial engineering, systems engineering, risk engineering, and other assurance technology domains. Design and system engineers as well as safety professionals will find the material essential in troubleshooting complex projects and ensuring product, process, and system safety.

Author Biography

DEV G. RAHEJA is a world leader in system assurance technologies. He is founder and President of Design for Competitiveness, Inc., a former executive with General Electric and Booz Allen Hamilton, and has done consulting and training for automotive, aerospace, medical, defense, and many Fortune 500 high-tech corporations. He is the recipient of the Austin Bonis Reliability Education Advancement Award from the American Society for Quality for his pioneering work in reliability. He is a Fellow of the System Safety Society, and has received the Scientific Achievement Award and the Educator of the Year Award. He is also the Chairman of the IEEE Design for Reliability Technical Committee.

MICHAEL ALLOCCO is a Fellow and former executive vice president of the System Safety Society and has received the Educator of the Year Award. He has over three decades of experience in safety engineering, system safety, and safety management and conducts graduate-level lectures in system safety engineering at major universities. He has applied system safety engineering on diverse complex systems for the general industry, DOT, DOD, DOE, and NASA.

Table of Contents

PREFACE	xix
CHAPTER 1 ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGIES,PROFITS, AND MANAGING SAFETY-RELATED RISKS	1	(10)
1.1 Introduction	1	(1)
1.2 Cheaper, Better, and Faster Products	2	(3)
1.3 What Is System Assurance?	5	(1)
1.4 Key Management Responsibilities	5	(3)
1.4.1 Integration	5	(1)
1.4.2 Budget Consistent with Objectives	5	(1)
1.4.3 Managing Risk	6	(6)
1.4.3.1 Managing Safety-Related Risk	6	(1)
1.4.3.2 Risk Assessment	7	(1)
1.4.3.3 Risk Types	7	(1)
1.4.3.4 Risk Terms	8	(1)
1.4.3.5 Risk Knowledge	8	(1)
1.5 Is System Assurance a Process?	8	(2)
1.6 System Assurance Programs	10	(1)
References	10	(1)
Further Reading	10	(1)
CHAPTER 2 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL CONCEPTS	11	(30)
2.1 Probabilistic Designs	11	(1)
2.2 Probability Computations for Reliability, Safety, and Maintainability	12	(4)
2.2.1 Construction of a Histogram and the Empirical Distribution	12	(2)
2.2.2 Computing Reliability	14	(1)
2.2.3 Failure Rate and Hazard Function	15	(1)
2.3 Normal Distribution	16	(6)
2.4 Log Normal Distribution	22	(3)
2.5 Exponential Distribution	25	(4)
2.6 Weibull Distribution	29	(3)
2.7 Data Analysis with Weibull Distribution	32	(4)
2.8 Discrete Distributions	36	(3)
2.8.1 Binomial Distribution	37	(1)
2.8.2 Poisson Distribution	38	(1)
2.9 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	39	(1)
References	39	(1)
Further Reading	40	(1)
CHAPTER 3 RELIABILITY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY-RELATED APPLICATIONS	41	(62)
3.1 Reliability Principles	41	(3)
3.2 Reliability in the Design Phase	44	(21)
3.2.1 Writing Reliability Specifications	45	(1)
3.2.2 Conducting Design Reviews	45	(3)
3.2.2.1 Preliminary Design Review	46	(1)
3.2.2.2 Lessons Learned and Checklists	47	(1)
3.2.3 Reliability Allocation	48	(1)
3.2.4 Reliability Modeling	49	(2)
3.2.4.1 Series Model	49	(1)
3.2.4.2 Parallel Model	50	(1)
3.2.5 Reliability Prediction	51	(3)
3.2.6 Failure-Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis	54	(7)
3.2.7 Worst-Case Analysis	61	(1)
3.2.8 Other Analysis Techniques	61	(1)
3.2.9 Design Improvement Approaches	62	(4)
3.2.9.1 Derating	62	(1)
3.2.9.2 Fault Tolerance	62	(3)
3.3 Reliability in the Manufacturing Phase	65	(1)
3.4 Reliability in the Test Phase	66	(20)
3.4.1 Reliability Growth Testing	67	(3)
3.4.2 Tests for Durability	70	(5)
3.4.3 Testing for Low Failure Rates	75	(7)
3.4.4 Burn-in and Screening	82	(4)
3.5 Reliability in the Use Phase	86	(1)
3.6 Reliability and Safety Commonalities	87	(13)
3.6.1 Common System Objective	87	(1)
3.6.2 Unreliability and Hazards	87	(1)
3.6.3 Complex Risks	88	(1)
3.6.4 Potential System Accidents	88	(1)
3.6.5 Software Reliability and Safety	89	(1)
3.6.6 Reliability and Safety Trade-offs	89	(1)
3.6.7 Reliability and Safety Misconceptions	89	(17)
3.6.7.1 Redundancy	90	(1)
3.6.7.2 Monitoring	91	(1)
3.6.7.3 Concepts of Probability	91	(1)
3.6.7.4 Familiarization to Automation	92	(1)
3.6.7.5 Reliable Software and Safety Considerations	93	(2)
3.6.7.6 Reliable Analyses and Safety Applications	95	(5)
3.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	100	(1)
References	101	(1)
Further Reading	102	(1)
CHAPTER 4 MAINTAINABILITY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY-RELATED APPLICATIONS	103	(44)
4.1 Maintainability Engineering Principles	103	(3)
4.2 Maintainability during the Design Phase	106	(16)
4.2.1 Developing Maintainability Specifications	106	(1)
4.2.2 Design Review for Maintainability	107	(2)
4.2.3 Maintainability Analysis	109	(1)
4.2.4 FMECA for Maintainability	109	(1)
4.2.5 Maintainability Prediction	110	(1)
4.2.6 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis	111	(3)
4.2.7 Design for Accessibility	114	(1)
4.2.8 Design for Ease of Maintenance	114	(4)
4.2.9 Design for MM of Testing	118	(4)
4.3 Maintainability in the Manufacturing Stage	122	(4)
4.3.1 Maintainability for Existing Equipment	122	(2)
4.3.2 Maintainability for New Equipment	124	(2)
4.4 Maintainability in the Test Stage	126	(2)
4.4.1 Prerequisites for Maintainability Tests	127	(1)
4.4.2 Tests for Inherent Equipment Downtime	127	(1)
4.4.3 Tests for Human Variations	127	(1)
4.4.4 Maintenance Level Tests	127	(1)
4.5 Maintainability in the Use Stage	128	(4)
4.5.1 Prediction and Reduction of Limited-Life Items	128	(1)
4.5.2 Monitoring and Predicting Operational Availability	129	(3)
4.5.3 Minimizing Support Costs	132	(1)
4.6 Maintainability and System Safety	132	(12)
4.6.1 Remote Maintenance Safety and Security	132	(2)
4.6.2 System Health Monitoring and Maintenance	134	(1)
4.6.3 Using Models to Develop Maintenance Diagnostics and Monitoring	134	(3)
4.6.3.1 Stress–Strength Analysis	134	(1)
4.6.3.2 Safety Factor and Safety Margin Variability	135	(1)
4.6.3.3 Safety Margin and a Hazard Control	135	(1)
4.6.3.4 Integration Considerations Between Safety-Related Models and Hazard Analysis	136	(1)
4.6.3.5 Real World Verification	137	(1)
4.6.4 Hazard Analysis in Support of Maintenance	137	(7)
4.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	144	(1)
References	145	(1)
Further Reading	145	(2)
CHAPTER 5 SYSTEM SAFETY ENGINEERING	147	(52)
5.1 System Safety Principles	147	(6)
5.1.1 System Safety Process	150	(1)
5.1.2 Risk Assessment	150	(1)
5.1.3 Technical Risk Analysis	150	(3)
5.1.4 Residual Risk	153	(1)
5.1.5 Emergency Preparedness	153	(1)
5.2 System Safety in Design	153	(23)
5.2.1 Criteria for a Safe Design	154	(2)
5.2.2 Safety Engineering Tasks	156	(1)
5.2.3 Preliminary Hazard Analysis	156	(5)
5.2.4 Subsystem Hazard Analysis	161	(2)
5.2.5 Fault-Tree Analysis	163	(4)
5.2.6 Cut Set Analysis	167	(2)
5.2.7 Failure-Mode, Effects, and Criticality Analysis	169	(1)
5.2.8 Maintenance Engineering Safety Analysis	169	(1)
5.2.9 Event Trees	170	(2)
5.2.10 Operating and Support Hazard Analysis	172	(2)
5.2.11 Occupational Health Hazard Assessment	174	(1)
5.2.12 Sneak Circuit Analysis	174	(2)
5.2.13 System Hazard Analysis	176	(1)
5.3 System Safety in Manufacturing	176	(2)
5.3.1 Determining Safety-Critical Items	176	(1)
5.3.2 Manufacturing Controls for Safety	176	(2)
5.4 System Safety in the Test Stage	178	(5)
5.4.1 Testing Principles	178	(1)
5.4.2 Prerequisites for Developing Appropriate Tests	179	(1)
5.4.3 Product Qualification Tests	180	(1)
5.4.4 Production Tests	180	(1)
5.4.5 Tests for Human-Related Errors	181	(1)
5.4.6 Testing the Safety of Design Modifications	182	(1)
5.4.7 Testing Procedures	182	(1)
5.4.8 Analyzing Test Data—The Right Way	182	(1)
5.4.9 How Much Testing Is Enough?	183	(1)
5.5 System Safety in the Use Stage	183	(2)
5.5.1 Closed-Loop Hazard Management (Hazard Tracking and Risk Resolution)	183	(1)
5.5.2 Integrity of the Procedures	183	(1)
5.5.3 Control of Changes	184	(1)
5.5.3.1 Changes in Product Design	184	(1)
5.5.3.2 Changes in Manufacturing Process	184	(1)
5.5.4 Accident/Incident Investigation	184	(1)
5.6 Analyzing System Hazards and Risks	185	(6)
5.6.1 SDHA Process Development	186	(1)
5.6.2 Designing Accidents	187	(4)
5.6.2.1 SDHA-Related Concept	187	(1)
5.6.2.2 Adverse Event Model	187	(1)
5.6.2.3 Life Cycle of a System Accident	188	(1)
5.6.2.4 Potential Pitfalls in Logic Development	189	(1)
5.6.2.5 Determining Hazards (Unsafe Acts are Unsafe Conditions)	190	(1)
5.6.2.6 Tabular Worksheet	190	(1)
5.6.2.7 Deductive and Inductive Approaches Toward Scenario Development	190	(1)
5.7 Hazard Identification	191	(4)
5.7.1 Scenario Themes	191	(1)
5.7.2 Primary Hazards	192	(1)
5.7.3 Initiators	193	(1)
5.7.4 Contributors	194	(1)
5.7.5 Overlapping Hazards	195	(1)
5.8 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	195	(1)
References	196	(1)
Further Reading	197	(2)
CHAPTER 6 QUALITY ASSURANCE ENGINEERING AND PREVENTING LATENT SAFETY DEFECTS	199	(38)
6.1 Quality Assurance Principles	199	(2)
6.2 Quality Assurance in the Design Phase	201	(19)
6.2.1 Product Design Review for Quality	202	(4)
6.2.1.1 Quality Function Deployment	203	(1)
6.2.1.2 Benchmarking	204	(1)
6.2.1.3 Quality Loss Function	204	(2)
6.2.2 Process Design Review for Quality and Yield	206	(3)
6.2.2.1 Capital Equipment Analysis	207	(2)
6.2.3 Design Optimization for Robustness	209	(5)
6.2.3.1 Shainin Approach	210	(1)
6.2.3.2 Taguchi Approach	211	(3)
6.2.4 Process FMECA	214	(3)
6.2.5 Quality Assurance Plans for Procurement and Process Control in the Design Phase	217	(3)
6.2.5.1 Equipment Procurement Plans	217	(1)
6.2.5.2 Process Control Plans	217	(1)
6.2.5.3 Component Procurement Quality Plans	218	(2)
6.3 Quality Assurance in the Manufacturing Phase	220	(12)
6.3.1 Evaluation of Pilot Run	220	(1)
6.3.2 Process Control	221	(7)
6.3.2.1 Identifying Causes of Variation	222	(2)
6.3.2.2 Verifying the Influence of Causes	224	(2)
6.3.2.3 Statistical Process Control	226	(2)
6.3.2.4 Control Charts for Variables	228	(1)
6.3.3 PPM Control for World-Class Quality	228	(2)
6.3.4 Working with Suppliers	230	(1)
6.3.5 PPM Assessment	231	(1)
6.4 Quality Assurance in the Test Phase	232	(1)
6.4.1 Qualification Versus Production Testing	233	(1)
6.4.2 Industry Standards	233	(1)
6.5 Quality Assurance in the Use Phase	233	(1)
6.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	234	(1)
References	234	(1)
Further Reading	235	(2)
CHAPTER 7 LOGISTICS SUPPORT ENGINEERING AND SYSTEM SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS	237	(24)
7.1 Logistics Support Principles	237	(1)
7.2 Logistics Engineering During the Design Phase	238	(7)
7.2.1 Logistics Specifications for Existing Products	238	(2)
7.2.2 Logistics Specifications for New Products	240	(1)
7.2.3 Design Reviews	241	(1)
7.2.4 Logistics Support Analysis	241	(1)
7.2.5 FMECA for Logistics Support Analysis	242	(2)
7.2.6 Time-Line Analysis	244	(1)
7.2.7 Level-of-Repair Analysis	245	(1)
7.2.8 Logistics Support Analysis Documentation	245	(1)
7.3 Logistics Engineering During the Manufacturing Phase	245	(1)
7.4 Logistics Engineering During the Test Phase	246	(1)
7.4.1 Tests for R&M Characteristics	246	(1)
7.4.2 Tests of Operating Procedures	246	(1)
7.4.3 Tests for Emergency Preparedness	246	(1)
7.5 Logistics Engineering in the Use Phase	246	(5)
7.5.1 Reliability-Centered Maintenance	247	(3)
7.5.1.1 RCM Analysis Planning	247	(1)
7.5.1.2 RCM Process	247	(1)
7.5.1.3 RCM Strategies	247	(3)
7.5.2 Measuring the Effectiveness of Logistics Engineering	250	(1)
7.6 Logistics Support Engineering and System Safety	251	(8)
7.6.1 Product, General, and Professional Liability	251	(1)
7.6.2 Analysis of Changing Risks	251	(1)
7.6.3 Life-Cycle Logistics and System Safety	252	(10)
7.6.3.1 Production and Deployment Considerations	252	(1)
7.6.3.2 Process Runs	253	(1)
7.6.3.3 Production Inspection	253	(1)
7.6.3.4 Quality Control and Data Analysis	254	(1)
7.6.3.5 Storage, Transportation, and Handling	255	(1)
7.6.3.6 Construction, Installation, Assembly, Testing, and Initial Operation	256	(1)
7.6.3.7 Operations, Maintenance, and Upkeep	256	(2)
7.6.3.8 Retirement and Disposal	258	(1)
7.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	259	(1)
References	259	(1)
Further Reading	260	(1)
CHAPTER 8 HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING AND SYSTEM SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS	261	(28)
8.1 Human Engineering Principles	261	(1)
8.2 Human Factors in the Design Phase	262	(6)
8.2.1 Use of Checklists and Standards in Specifications	262	(3)
8.2.2 Design Reviews for Human Interfaces	265	(1)
8.2.3 Using Lessons Learned	265	(1)
8.2.4 Review of Hazard Analyses	266	(2)
8.3 Human Factors in the Manufacturing Phase	268	(2)
8.3.1 Types of Manufacturing Errors and Controls	268	(1)
8.3.1.1 Errors of Illusion	268	(1)
8.3.1.2 Errors of Vision	269	(1)
8.3.1.3 Errors of Insufficient Knowledge	269	(1)
8.3.1.4 Errors of Engineering Oversight	269	(1)
8.3.2 Preventing Inspection Errors	269	(1)
8.4 Human Factors in the Test Phase	270	(4)
8.4.1 Tests for Stereotype Behavior	270	(1)
8.4.2 Tests for Emergency Preparedness	271	(2)
8.4.3 Tests for Amelioration	273	(1)
8.4.4 Tests for the Human—Machine Interface	273	(1)
8.5 Human Factors in the Use Phase	274	(1)
8.6 Additional Considerations Involving Human Factors and System Safety	274	(2)
8.6.1 Human Variability	274	(1)
8.6.2 Human Engineering Complexities	275	(1)
8.6.3 The Human Machine	275	(1)
8.6.4 Human Behavior	275	(1)
8.6.5 Human Motivation	275	(1)
8.6.6 Motivation and Safety Culture	276	(1)
8.6.7 Human Error	276	(1)
8.7 Real Time and Latent Errors	276	(1)
8.8 Analyses in Support of Human Factors and System Safety	277	(9)
8.8.1 Human Interface Analysis	277	(1)
8.8.2 Link Analysis	277	(2)
8.8.3 Critical Incident Technique (CIT)	279	(1)
8.8.4 Behavior Sampling	279	(2)
8.8.5 Procedure Analysis	281	(1)
8.8.6 Life Support/Life Safety Analysis	281	(1)
8.8.7 Job Safety Analysis	282	(1)
8.8.8 Human Reliability	282	(1)
8.8.9 Technique for Error Rate Prediction (THERP)	283	(1)
8.8.10 A Technique for Human Event Analysis (ATHEANA)	284	(1)
8.8.11 Human Error Criticality Analysis (HECA)	285	(1)
8.8.12 Workload Assessment	286	(1)
8.9 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	286	(1)
References	287	(1)
Further Reading	288	(1)
CHAPTER 9 SOFTWARE PERFORMANCE ASSURANCE	289	(46)
9.1 Software Performance Principles	289	(8)
9.1.1 Software Quality	290	(1)
9.1.2 Software Reliability	291	(2)
9.1.3 Software System Safety	293	(1)
9.1.4 Software Maintainability	294	(1)
9.1.5 Software Logistics Engineering	294	(1)
9.1.6 Some Important Definitions	295	(2)
9.2 Software Performance in the Design Phase	297	(26)
9.2.1 Software Quality Assurance in Design	297	(1)
9.2.2 Software Reliability in Design	298	(2)
9.2.2.1 Software Design Techniques for Reliability	299	(1)
9.2.2.2 Preventing Specification and Design Errors	300	(1)
9.2.3 Software Maintainability in Design	300	(1)
9.2.4 Software System Safety in Design	301	(4)
9.2.4.1 Software Safety Risk Assessment	302	(1)
9.2.4.2 Software Safety Tools	303	(2)
9.2.5 Software Logistics Engineering	305	(1)
9.2.6 Software System Failure-Modes and Effects Analysis	306	(4)
9.2.6.1 The Objective	306	(1)
9.2.6.2 The Methodology	306	(1)
9.2.6.3 Demonstration of Methodology	307	(2)
9.2.6.4 Software–Hardware Interface Control	309	(1)
9.2.6.5 Other Uses of SSFMEA	309	(1)
9.2.6.6 Implementing a SSFMEA Program	310	(1)
9.2.7 Software Performance Specification	310	(1)
9.2.8 Software Design Review Checklist	310	(13)
9.3 Software Requirements During Coding and Integration	323	(5)
9.3.1 Coding Errors	323	(1)
9.3.2 Quantifying Software Errors	324	(2)
9.3.3 Coding Error Prevention	326	(2)
9.4 Software Testing	328	(3)
9.4.1 Testing for Quality	328	(1)
9.4.2 Testing for Reliability	329	(1)
9.4.3 Testing for Maintainability	329	(1)
9.4.4 Testing for Software Safety	329	(1)
9.4.5 Testing for Overall Qualification	330	(1)
9.5 Software Performance in the Use Stage	331	(1)
9.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	332	(1)
References	332	(3)
CHAPTER 10 SYSTEM EFFECTIVENESS	335	(20)
10.1 Introduction	335	(1)
10.2 System Effectiveness Principles	336	(3)
10.3 Implementing the Programs	339	(2)
10.4 Managing by Life-Cycle Costs	341	(2)
10.5 System Effectiveness Model	343	(1)
10.6 Authors' Recommendations	343	(1)
10.7 System Risk and Effects on System Effectiveness	344	(9)
10.7.1 System Accidents	345	(1)
10.7.2 Complex System Risks	345	(1)
10.7.3 Synergistic Risks	345	(1)
10.7.4 Controlling Risks with Effective System Safety Requirements and Standards	346	(1)
10.7.5 Effective System Safety Requirements and Standards	347	(5)
10.7.5.1 Standards and Federal Codes	348	(1)
10.7.5.2 General System Safety Requirements	348	(1)
10.7.5.3 Derived Requirements	349	(1)
10.7.5.4 Requirements Testing	349	(1)
10.7.5.5 Requirements Development	350	(1)
10.7.5.6 Requirements Compliance	350	(1)
10.7.5.7 Requirements Revision	350	(1)
10.7.5.8 Requirements Traceability	351	(1)
10.7.5.9 Requirements Documentation	351	(1)
10.7.5.10 Requirements Language	351	(1)
10.7.5.11 Redundant Requirements	351	(1)
10.7.6 Additional System Effectiveness Models	352	(1)
10.7.7 Other Indicators of System Effectiveness or Success	352	(1)
10.8 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	353	(1)
References	353	(1)
Further Reading	354	(1)
CHAPTER 11 MANAGING SAFETY-RELATED RISKS	355	(18)
11.1 Establish the Appropriate Safety Program to Manage Risk	355	(1)
11.1.1 Specific Safety Programs	355	(1)
11.2 Programs to Address Product, Process, and System Safety	356	(12)
11.2.1 Product Safety Management	356	(2)
11.2.2 Process Safety Management	358	(4)
11.2.3 System Safety Management	362	(6)
11.3 Resource Allocation and Cost Analysis in Safety Management	368	(1)
11.3.1 Cost of Losses Versus Cost of Control	369	(1)
11.4 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	369	(1)
References	370	(1)
Further Reading	370	(3)
CHAPTER 12 STATISTICAL CONCEPTS, LOSS ANALYSES, AND SAFETY-RELATED APPLICATIONS	373	(12)
12.1 Use of Distributions and Statistical Applications Associated with Safety	373	(1)
12.2 Statistical Analysis Techniques Used Within Safety Analysis	373	(3)
12.3 Using Statistical Control in Decision-Making for Safety	376	(3)
12.4 Behavior Sampling	379	(1)
12.5 Calculating Hazardous Exposures to the Human System	380	(3)
12.6 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	383	(1)
References	384	(1)
Further Reading	384	(1)
CHAPTER 13 MODELS, CONCEPTS, AND EXAMPLES: APPLYING SCENARIO-DRIVEN HAZARD ANALYSIS	385	(26)
13.1 Adverse Sequences	385	(6)
13.1.1 Scenarios Within Safety Analysis	385	(1)
13.1.2 Modeling Within Safety Analysis	385	(5)
13.1.2.1 Overviews and Models	386	(1)
13.1.2.2 Visualization	387	(1)
13.1.2.3 Scenarios, Reality, and Benefits	387	(3)
13.1.3 Integration and Presentation of Analysis Information	390	(1)
13.1.4 Narrative Reports Versus Tabular Formats	390	(1)
13.2 Designing Formats for Conducting Analysis and Reporting Results	391	(2)
13.3 Documentation Reports	393	(1)
13.3.1 Reporting Analysis Results	394	(1)
13.4 Conceptual Models	394	(3)
13.4.1 Hammer Model	394	(1)
13.4.2 Complex Scenario Models	395	(1)
13.4.3 Fishbone Diagrams	396	(1)
13.5 Life Cycle of a System Accident	397	(1)
13.5.1 Complex Interactions	397	(1)
13.6 Operating and Support Hazard Analysis Example	398	(10)
13.7 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	408	(1)
Reference	408	(1)
Further Reading	408	(3)
CHAPTER 14 AUTOMATION, COMPUTER, AND SOFTWARE COMPLEXITIES	411	(20)
14.1 Complex System Analysis	411	(1)
14.2 System Context	412	(1)
14.3 Understanding the Adverse Sequence	413	(1)
14.3.1 Malfunction and Failure Modes	413	(1)
14.3.2 Understanding System Functions	413	(1)
14.3.3 Understanding Conceptual Processes	414	(1)
14.4 Additional Software Safety Analysis Techniques	414	(6)
14.4.1 Software Malfunction	414	(3)
14.4.2 Manifestation of Software-Related Risks	417	(1)
14.4.3 Understanding Anomalies	417	(1)
14.4.4 Complexity, Understanding Risks, and System States	417	(1)
14.4.5 System States	418	(1)
14.4.6 Complexity of Initiators, Contributors, and System Accidents	418	(1)
14.4.7 Functional Abstractions and Domains	418	(1)
14.4.8 Latent Hazards Throughout the Life Cycle	418	(1)
14.4.9 Errors in Model Use and Development	419	(1)
14.4.10 Understanding Safety Criticality	419	(1)
14.4.11 Understanding Transfer and Switching Complications	419	(1)
14.5 True Redundancy	420	(1)
14.5.1 System Redundancy	420	(1)
14.6 Complexities and Hazards Within Computer Hardware	420	(1)
14.6.1 Controls, Mitigations, and Added Complexities	420	(1)
14.7 Initiators and Contributors: The Errors Associated with Software	421	(5)
14.8 Other Specialized Techniques, Analysis Methods, and Tools for Evaluating Software and Computer Systems	426	(1)
14.8.1 Software Reliability	426	(1)
14.8.2 Static Complexity Analysis	426	(1)
14.8.3 Dynamic Analysis	426	(1)
14.8.4 Test Coverage Monitoring	426	(1)
14.9 Existing Legacy Systems, Reusable Software, Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) Software, and Nondevelopment Items (NDIs)	427	(1)
14.10 Topics for Student Projects and Theses	428	(1)
References	429	(1)
Further Reading	429	(2)
APPENDIX A: REFERENCE TABLES	431	(10)
APPENDIX B: AN OUTSTANDING APPLICATION OF ASSURANCE TECHNOLOGIES	441	(8)
INDEX	449